Manipur
Manipur | |
|---|---|
Sanamahi Kiyong in the Nongmaiching Ching mountain Dual statues of the Kanglā shā dragons Temple of Pakhangba inside the Kangla Fort | |
| Anthem: Sanā leibāk Manipur (Meitei for 'Manipur, Land of Gold')[1] | |
 Location of Manipur in India | |
| Coordinates: 24°49′N 93°56′E / 24.81°N 93.94°E | |
| Country | India |
| Region | Northeast India |
| Previously was | Manipur Kingdom |
| Admission to union | 15 October 1949[2] |
| As union territory | 1 November 1956 |
| As state | 21 January 1972 |
| Capital and largest city | Imphal |
| Districts | 16 |
| Government | |
| • Body | Government of Manipur |
| • Governor | Ajay Kumar Bhalla |
| • Chief Minister | Y. Khemchand Singh (BJP) |
| • Deputy Chief Minister | Nemcha Kipgen (BJP) Losii Dikho (NPF)[3] |
| Area | |
• Total | 22,327 km2 (8,621 sq mi) |
| • Rank | 23rd |
| Highest elevation | 2,994 m (9,823 ft) |
| Lowest elevation | 140 m (460 ft) |
| Population | |
• Total | 2,855,794 |
| • Rank | 23rd |
| • Density | 130/km2 (340/sq mi) |
| • Urban | 30.21% |
| • Rural | 69.79% |
| Language | |
| • Official | Meitei (Manipuri) |
| • Official script | Meitei script |
| GDP | |
| • Total (2026–27) |  ₹68,823 crore (US$7.1 billion) (nominal) ~US$33.65 billion (PPP)[7] |
| • Rank | 28th |
| • Per capita | ₹153,993 (US$1,600) (nominal) (2024–25) ~US$7,575 (PPP)[8] (27th) |
| Time zone | UTC+05:30 (IST) |
| ISO 3166 code | IN-MN |
| Vehicle registration | MN |
| HDI (2022) | 0.683[9] medium (17th) |
| Literacy (2024) | 92.0%[10] (10th) |
| Sex ratio (2011) | 985♀/1000 ♂ |
| Website | manipur |
| Symbols of Manipur | |
| Bird |  (Meitei for 'Syrmaticus humiae') |
| Fish |  (Meitei for 'Osteobrama belangeri')[11] |
| Flower |  |
| Mammal |  (Meitei for 'Cervus eldi eldi') |
| Tree |  (Meitei for 'Phoebe hainesiana') |
| State highway mark | |
 | |
| State highway of Manipur | |
| List of Indian state symbols | |
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Manipur (/ˌmænɪˈpʊər/, IPA: [məɳiˈpʊɾ])[12] is a state in northeastern India, with Imphal as its capital city. It borders the Indian states of Assam to the west, Mizoram to the south, and Nagaland to the north and shares the international border with Myanmar, specifically the Sagaing Region to the east and Chin State to the southeast. Covering an area of 22,330 square kilometers (8,621 sq mi), the state consists mostly of hilly terrain with the 1813-square-kilometre (700 sq mi) Imphal Valley inhabited by the Meitei (Manipuri) community, historically a kingdom. Surrounding hills are home to Naga and Kuki-Zo communities, who speak Tibeto-Burman languages.[13][14] The official language and lingua franca, Meitei (Manipuri), also belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family.[15]
During the days of the British Raj, Manipur was one of the princely states.[16] Prior to the British departure in 1947, Manipur acceded to the Dominion of India, along with 550 other princely states approximately.[17] In September 1949, the ruler of Manipur signed a merger agreement with India, giving up the rule of the kingdom and obtaining a privy purse in return.[18] Many Meitei people feel that their self-determination was violated by the agreement since the legislature elected under the constitution was not consulted.[19] Ethnic and separatist concerns have resulted in a long-running insurgency against Indian rule.[19] From 2009 through 2018, the conflict was responsible for the violent deaths of over 1000 people.[20]
The Meitei people represent around 53% of the population of Manipur state, followed by various Naga tribes at 20% and Kuki-Zo tribes at 16%.[21] Manipur's ethnic groups practice a variety of religions.[22] According to 2011 census, Hinduism and Christianity are the major religions of the state.[22]
Manipur has primarily an agrarian economy, with significant hydroelectric power generation potential. It is connected to other areas by daily flights through Imphal Airport, the second largest in northeastern India.[23] Manipur is home to many sports and the origin of Manipuri dance,[24] and is credited with introducing polo to Europeans.[25]
Name
The name Manipur (Sanskrit: मणिपुर, romanized: maṇipura, lit. ''city of jewels'') was chosen by Gharib Nawaz in the eighteenth century. It is named after a kingdom of the same name mentioned in the Mahabharata Hindu epic. Previously, it had been known as Kangleipak (Meitei: ꯀꯪꯂꯩꯄꯛ)[26][27] or Meiteileipak (ꯃꯩꯇꯩꯂꯩꯕꯥꯛ, 'land of the Meiteis').[28] Later, the work Dharani Samhita (1825–34) popularised the Sanskrit legends of the origin of Manipur's name.[29]
Other names include Sanaleibak (Meitei: ꯁꯅꯥꯂꯩꯕꯥꯛ, lit. 'the land of gold'), not given because Manipur has a lot of the gold mines, but because of its happiness and prosperity.[30] This name was mentioned in the 11th-12th century constitution, the Loiyumba Shinyen,10 and is still heard in the official song of Manipur, "Sana Leibak Manipur".
History
Antiquity
The history of Manipur Meiteis is chronicled in Puyas or Puwaris (stories about the forefathers), namely, the Ninghthou Kangbalon, Cheitharol Kumbaba, Ningthourol Lambuba, Poireiton Khunthokpa, Panthoibi Khongkul, and so forth in the Meitei script, which is comparable to the Thai script. The historical accounts presented here were recordings from the eyes and the judgment of Meitei kings and Maichou (Meitei scholars).
The Kingdoms of Möng Kawng and Möng Mao
According to the Tai chronicles, Manipur (Kahse) is one of the territories conquered by Sam Lông Hpa (1150–1201), the first Chao Pha of Möng Kawng.[31] A 14th-century inscription from Pagan, Myanmar, mentions Kasan (Manipur) as one of the 21 states under the Mong Mao ruler Thonganbwa (1413–1445/6); he later was captured by the Governor of Taungdwingyi.[32]
Medieval
Vassal State of the Toungoo empire
Bayinnaung, the ruler of Toungoo dynasty ordered the invasion of Manipur in 1559. He had recalled Binnya Dala from Chiang Mai to lead the invasion. The three armies mostly made up of army from Kale, Mohnyin, Mogaung, Momeik and Sanda led the invasion, the King of Manipur surrendered without any resistance and Manipur became a vassal state of the Toungoo empire.[33]
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Vassal state of Konbaung dynasty
In the 18th century, Bodawpaya, the king of Burma acquired the Manipur (1814) along with the western kingdoms of Arakan (1784), Assam (1817).
By the medieval period, marriage alliances between the royal families of Manipur, Ahom kingdom and Burma had become common.[34] Medieval era manuscripts discovered in the 20th century, particularly the Puya, provide evidence that Hindus from the Indian subcontinent had married Manipur royalty by at least the 14th century. In centuries thereafter, royal spouses came also from what is now Assam, Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh and from other South Indian kingdoms as well.[35] Another manuscript suggests that Muslims arrived in Manipur in the 17th century, from what is now Bangladesh, during the reign of Meidingu Khagemba.[35] The socio-political turmoil and wars, particularly the persistent and devastating Anglo-Burmese wars, affected the cultural and religious demography of Manipur.[36]
British colonial period
In 1824, the ruler of Manipur entered into a subsidiary alliance with the British Empire in the Indian subcontinent, which became responsible for Manipur's external defence. The British recognised that the state remained internally self-governing, as a princely state.[37] During World War II, Manipur was the scene of many fierce battles between Japanese invaders and British Indian forces. The Japanese were beaten back before they could enter Imphal, which was one of the turning points of the overall war in South Asia.[38] The Battle of Imphal, known to the Manipuris as Japan Laan, are among the lesser-known battles of the Second World War. Yet the Allied Victory in this battle was a turning point against the Japanese in East Asia.[39][40][41]
Post-colonial history
After the war, the Maharaja took the advice of the British Cabinet Mission and the Chamber of Princes to introduce democratic reforms in the state.[47] The Manipur State Constitution Act of 1947 was promulgated in July 1947 to give the state an elected legislative assembly and an appointed prime minister.[48][49] Elections to the assembly were held only in the following year.[50]
Following the decision to partition British India, all the princely states were advised to "accede" to one of the new dominions. The Maharaja acceded to India on 11 August 1947 and signed a standstill agreement to continue all the pre-existing arrangements it had with British India.[17][51][52][53] Some Meitei people argue that the king was in no legal position to sign the instrument of accession at the time.[54][55]
Over the next two years, the multitude of princely states of India were extensively reorganised as India moved towards becoming a constitutional republic. Proposals for reorganisation were also made for Manipur but discarded as being unsuitable.[56][57] Eventually Manipur was turned into a centrally administered province (called a 'Part C' state, later renamed union territory) by asking the Maharaja to sign a merger agreement.[58][59] He is believed to have signed it under duress.[60] Later, on 21 September 1949, he signed a Merger Agreement, disputed as having been done without consultation of the popular ministry under Manipur State Constitution Act 1947 and denial of the king's request to return to Manipur to discuss the same with his people.[61][62][63][64] Under 'duress' and 'coercion' Bodhachandra Singh signed the merger agreement merging the kingdom into India, which led to its becoming a Part C State.[65][66][67]
The legislative assembly was dissolved and a centrally appointed Chief Commissioner handled the state's administration, as per the Constitution of India. An advisory council with nominated members was provided to advise the Chief Commissioner.[68] In 1956, the advisory council was replaced by a territorial council with mostly elected members.[68][69] In 1963, Manipur was provided a legislative assembly, with a council of ministers headed by a chief minister.[68][70] It was made a fully-fledged state in 1972 by the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971.[68][71]
Manipur has a long record of insurgency and inter-ethnic violence.[72][73] Its first armed opposition group, the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), was founded in 1964 aiming to achieve independence from India and establish Manipur as a new country. Over time, many more groups formed, each with different goals, and deriving support from diverse ethnic groups in Manipur. The People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) was formed in 1977, and the People's Liberation Army (PLA) in 1978, suspected by Human Rights Watch of receiving arms and training from China.[74] In 1980, the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP) was formed. These groups began a spree of bank robberies and attacks on police officers and government buildings.[74] The state government appealed to the central government in New Delhi for support in combating this violence.[19]
"Disturbed area" designation
From 1980 to 2004, the Indian government referred to Manipur as a disturbed area. This term (designated by the Ministry of Home Affairs or a state governor) refers to a territory where extraordinary laws under the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act can be used. The laws allow the military to treat private and public spaces in the same manner, detain individuals for up to 24 hours with unlimited renewals, perform warrantless searches, and to shoot and kill individuals who break laws, carry weapons, or gather in groups larger than four. Legal immunity applies to the military.[75] Since 1980, the application of the AFSPA has been at the heart of concerns about human rights violations in the region, such as arbitrary killings, torture, cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment, and forced disappearances. Its continued application has led to numerous protests, notably the longstanding hunger strike by Irom Sharmila Chanu.[76][77]
In 2004, the government lifted the disturbed status after a violent attack on a local woman. The rape of a Manipuri woman, Thangjam Manorama Devi, by members of the Assam Rifles paramilitary had led to wide protests including a nude protest by the Meira Paibi women's association.[78]
18 June Uprising
On 18 June 2001, a massive protest broke out in Imphal Valley. The protest was triggered by the Government of India's decision to extend the ceasefire agreement with the NSCN-IM "without territorial limits", which was widely perceived as a threat to Manipur's territorial integrity. Demonstrators set fire to the Manipur Legislative Assembly and other government buildings in Imphal. Security forces opened fire to stop the crowds, killing 18 people.[79]
2023 Manipur violence
On 3 May 2023, ethnic violence broke out between Meitei people and Kuki people led to extensive violence and arson, resulting in the displacement of 60,000 people from their homes and hundreds more dead and hospitalised.[80] According to data released by Manipur Police, as on September 15, 2023; 175 people were killed; 1,118 people were injured, and 33 people were missing. 96 bodies remained unclaimed. 5,172 cases of arson including destruction of 4,786 houses and 386 religious places, out of which there were 254 churches and 132 temples, were reported since May. Out of 5,668 arms lost;[clarification needed] 1,329 arms, 15,050 ammunition and 400 bombs were recovered.[81][82][83] Indian army troops were deployed to control the situation.[84] International outrage resulted on 20 July 2023, from a viral video that two Kuki women had been paraded naked and allegedly gang-raped by a mob of Meitei men.[85][86][87]
Geography
The state lies at a latitude of 23°83'N – 25°68'N and a longitude of 93°03'E – 94°78'E. The total area covered by the state is 22,327 km2 (8,621 sq mi). The capital lies in an oval-shaped valley of approximately 700 sq mi (2,000 km2), surrounded by blue mountains, at an elevation of 790 m (2,590 ft) above sea level.[88] The slope of the valley is from north to south. The mountain ranges create a moderate climate, preventing the cold winds from the north from reaching the valley and barring cyclonic storms.[89]
The state is bordered by the Indian states of Nagaland to its north, Mizoram to its south, Assam to its west, and shares an international border with Myanmar to its east.[90]
The state has four major river basins: the Barak River Basin (Barak Valley) to the west, the Manipur River Basin in central Manipur, the Yu River Basin in the east, and a portion of the Lanye River Basin in the north.[91] The water resources of Barak and Manipur river basins are about 1.8487 Mham (million hectare metres). The overall water balance of the state amounts to 0.7236 Mham in the annual water budget.[92] (By comparison, India receives 400 Mham of rain annually.[93])
The Barak River, the largest of Manipur, originates in the Manipur Hills and is joined by tributaries, such as the Irang, Maku, and Tuivai. After its junction with the Tuivai, the Barak River turns north, forms the border with Assam State, and then enters the Cachar Assam just above Lakhipur. The Manipur river basin has eight major rivers: the Manipur, Imphal, Iril, Nambul, Sekmai, Chakpi, Thoubal and Khuga. All these rivers originate from the surrounding hills.[94]
Almost all the rivers in the valley area are in the mature stage and therefore deposit their sediment load in the Loktak Lake.[88] The rivers draining the Manipur Hills are comparatively young, due to the hilly terrain through which they flow. These rivers are corrosive and become turbulent in the rainy season. Important rivers draining the western area include the Maku, Barak, Jiri, Irang, and Leimatak. Rivers draining the eastern part of the state, the Yu River Basin, include the Chamu, Khunou and other short streams.[94]
Manipur may be characterised as two distinct physical regions: an outlying area of rugged hills and narrow valleys, and the inner area of flat plain, with all associated landforms. These two areas are distinct in physical features and are conspicuous in flora and fauna. The valley region has hills and mounds rising above the flat surface. The Loktak Lake is an important feature of the central plain. The total area occupied by all the lakes is about 600 km2. The altitude ranges from 40 m at Jiribam to 2,994 m at Mount Tempü peak along the border with Nagaland.
The soil cover can be divided into two broad types, viz. the red ferruginous soil in the hill area and the alluvium in the valley. The valley soils generally contain loam, small rock fragments, sand, and sandy clay, and are varied. On the plains, especially flood plains and deltas, the soil is quite thick. The topsoil on the steep slopes is very thin. Soil on the steep hill slopes is subject to high erosion, resulting in gullies and barren rock slopes. The normal pH value ranges from 5.4 to 6.8.[95]
Flora
L. mackliniae is an endemic flower to Manipur and was declared the official state flower in 1989.[96]
Natural vegetation occupies an area of about 17,418 km2 (6,725 sq mi),[97] or 77.2% of the total geographical area of the state, and consists of short and tall grasses, reeds and bamboos, and trees. About a third of Manipur's forests are protected: 8.42% of the forested land is categorized under Reserved Forests, and 23.95% under Protected Forests.[98]
There are six major types of forests in Manipur, and 10 subtypes. The six major forest types, according to the state's Forest Department, include Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest, Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests, Sub-Tropical Pine Forest, Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest, Montane Wet Temperate Forest and Sub-alpine Forest.[98]
There are forests of teak, pine, oak, uningthou, leihao, bamboo, and cane. Rubber, tea, coffee, orange, and cardamom are grown in hill areas. Rice is a staple food for Manipuris.[90]
Climate
Manipur's climate is largely influenced by the topography of the region. Lying 790 metres above sea level, Manipur is wedged among hills on all sides. This northeastern corner of India enjoys a generally amiable climate, though the winters can be cool. The maximum temperature in the summer months is 32 °C (90 °F). The coolest conditions are in January, and the warmest month is July.[citation needed]
The state receives an average annual rainfall of 1,467.5 mm (57.78 in) between April and mid-October. Precipitation ranges from light rain or mizzle to heavy downpours. The capital city Imphal receives an annual average of 933 mm (36.7 in). Rainfall in this region is caused by The South Westerly Monsoon picking up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and heading towards the Eastern Himalaya ranges. This normal rainfall pattern of Manipur enriches the soil and much of the agrarian activities are dependent on it as well.
Manipur is already experiencing climate change, especially changes in weather, with both increased variability in rain as well as increasingly severe changes in temperature.[99]
Demographics
Population
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 1901 | 284,465 | — |
| 1911 | 346,222 | +21.7% |
| 1921 | 384,016 | +10.9% |
| 1931 | 445,606 | +16.0% |
| 1941 | 512,069 | +14.9% |
| 1951 | 577,635 | +12.8% |
| 1961 | 780,037 | +35.0% |
| 1971 | 1,072,753 | +37.5% |
| 1981 | 1,420,953 | +32.5% |
| 1991 | 1,837,149 | +29.3% |
| 2001 | 2,293,896 | +24.9% |
| 2011 | 2,855,794 | +24.5% |
| Source: Census of India[100] | ||
Manipur had a population of 2,855,794 at the 2011 census.[101] Of this total, 57.2% lived in the valley districts and the remaining 42.8% in the hill districts. The valley (plain) is mainly inhabited by the Meitei speaking population (native Manipuri speakers). The hills are inhabited mainly by several ethno-linguistically diverse tribes belonging to the Nagas, the Kukis and smaller tribal groupings. Naga and Kuki settlements are also found in the valley region, though less in numbers. There are also sizable populations of Nepalis, Bengalis, Tamils and Marwaris living in Manipur.[citation needed][verification needed]
The distribution of area, population and density, and literacy rate as per the 2001 Census provisional figures are as below:[citation needed]
| Total Population | 2,855,794 |
| Male Population | 1,438,586 |
| Female Population | 1,417,208 |
| Rural Population | 1,736,236 |
| Urban Population | 834,154 |
| Child Sex Ratio | 936 female to 1000 male |
| Density (per km2) | 115 |
| Literacy | 1,768,181 (85.4%) |
| Towns | 33 |
People
The Meiteis[102] (synonymous to the Manipuris) constitute the majority of the state's population. They inhabit the Imphal Valley. Nagas and Kuki-Zo are the major tribe conglomerates of tribes inhabiting the surrounding hills. The Kuki-Zos consist of several tribes including Gangte, Hmar, Paite, Simte, Sukte, Thadou, Vaiphei, Zou, and some smaller tribes. They speak Kuki-Chin languages and predominate the southern hill districts of Manipur. The prominent Naga tribes are Mao, Maram, Maring, Liangmai, Poumai, Rongmei and Tangkhul, each speaking its own language. They predominate the northern hill districts of Manipur. In addition, several smaller tribes that were classified as "Old Kuki" by the British administrators populate Chandel and neighbouring districts. Some of them now classify themselves as Nagas while others retain the Kuki classification.[a][104][105][106]
| All Scheduled Tribes | Population[107] | Percentage
of Total Pop. |
|---|---|---|
| Kuki-Zo tribes | 448,197 | 15.7% |
| Naga tribes | 623,441 | 21.8% |
| Old Kuki/Naga | 74,978 | 2.6% |
| Total | 1,167,422 | 40.9% |