Assam
Assam | |
|---|---|
| Etymology: From "Ahom" kingdom. | |
| Nickname: "Land of red river and blue hills" | |
| Motto: | |
| Anthem: O Mur Apunar Desh (Assamese)[2] "O My Dearest Country" | |
 Location of Assam in India | |
| Coordinates: 26°08′N 91°46′E / 26.14°N 91.77°E | |
| Country | India |
| Region | Northeast India |
| Previously was | State of Assam |
| Bifurcation | 21 January 1972 |
| Formation | 26 January 1950[3] |
| Capital | Dispur |
| Largest city | Guwahati |
| Districts | 35 (5 divisions) |
| Government | |
| • Body | Government of Assam |
| • Governor | Lakshman Acharya[4] |
| • Chief Minister | Himanta Biswa Sarma (BJP) |
| Area | |
• Total | 78,438 km2 (30,285 sq mi) |
| • Rank | 16th |
| Dimensions | |
| • Length | 725 km (450 mi) |
| • Width | 30 km (19 mi) |
| Highest elevation | 1,960 m (6,430 ft) |
| Lowest elevation | 45 m (148 ft) |
| Population (2011) | |
• Total | 31,205,576 |
| • Rank | 15th |
| • Density | 465.25/km2 (1,205.0/sq mi) |
| • Urban | 15.8% |
| • Rural | 84.2% |
| Demonym | Assamese |
| Language | |
| • Official | Assamese[5] • Boro[6] • Bengali (Barak Valley[7]) • Meitei (Barak Valley[a] and Hojai district[8]) |
| • Official script | Bengali–Assamese script (for Assamese & Bengali) • Devanagari (for Bodo) • Meitei script (for Meitei) |
| GDP | |
| • Total (2026-27) |  ₹871,451 crore (US$90 billion)~$425 billion (PPP)[10] |
| • Rank | 17th |
| • Per capita | ₹203,760 (US$2,100)(nominal) ~$10,000 (PPP) (2025-26 FY)[10] (18th) |
| Time zone | UTC+05:30 (IST) |
| ISO 3166 code | IN-AS |
| Vehicle registration | AS |
| HDI (2023) |  0.655 Medium[11] (31st) |
| Literacy (2024) | 87.0%[12] (15th) |
| Sex ratio (2025) | 934 (12th) |
| Website | assam |
| Symbols of Assam | |
| Foundation day | Asom Diwas |
| Bird | White-winged duck |
| Flower | Foxtail orchid |
| Fruit | Kaji Nemu |
| Mammal | Indian rhinoceros |
| Tree | Hollong |
| State highway mark | |
 | |
| State highway of Assam AS SH1 -AS SH48 | |
| List of Indian state symbols | |
| • First recognised as an administrative division on 1 April 1912, after the establishment of Assam Province by partitioning Province of East Bengal and Assam. • Became Assam Province under Independent India on 15 August 1947, and was recognised as a state after India became a republic on 26 January 1950 • Assam has had a legislature since 1937.[13] | |
Assam[b] is a state in Northeast India, located south of the Eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra Valley and Barak River valleys. It covers an area of 78,438 km2 (30,285 sq mi), and is the second largest state in northeastern India by area. As per the 2011 census, the state had a population of 31.2 million, and is the largest by population in the region. It shares international borders with Bhutan to the north and with Bangladesh to the southwest. It borders the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur to the east; Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram to the south; and West Bengal to the west. It is connected to the rest of the India to the west via the Siliguri Corridor(also known as the chicken neck)[14], a 22 km (14 mi) wide strip of land. Dispur is the capital of Assam while Dibrugarh is the second capital.[15] Guwahati is the largest city and urban area in the state.
Archaeological evidence from the region indicate early settlements from the second to first century BCE. Though the region finds mention in the Hindu epic Mahabharata, there is a lack of substantial archaeological evidence regarding its ancient history. The region is described as one of the frontiers of the Gupta Empire in fourth century CE. It was ruled by Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchhas (c.655–900 CE) and Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE) later. The Ahom kingdom was established in the 13th century CE, and ruled till the early 19th century CE. The period saw various conflicts with the Mughals. After the Moamoria rebellion and Burmese invasions weakened the Ahom kingdom, the British started establishing tea estates in the region in the 19th century CE. The region became part of the Bengal Presidency, and the Assam Province was established in 1912. The Assam Legislative Assembly was formed in 1937. The province became part of Independent India on 15 August 1947, and was recognised as a state after India became a republic on 26 January 1950.
The state is organised into 35 districts across five divisions. Assamese and Bodo are the official languages of the state with Meitei recognised as an additional official language in three districts of the Barak Valley and Hojai district, and Bengali in the Barak Valley. The state is known for its namesake Assam silk and Assam tea,[16] recognised as Geographical Indications in India. Oil was discovered in the region in 1867, and oil drilling started in 1889. Wildlife tourism is a major contributor to the economy of the state, aided by the presence of various protected areas including the Kaziranga and Manas National Parks, which are World Heritage Sites. More than half of the extant wild population of the one-horned Indian rhinoceros occurs in the state. The state is a rich biodiversity zone consisting of various ecosystems including tropical rainforests, deciduous forests, riverine grasslands, orchards, and wetlands. It receives copious amount of rainfall, which feeds the Brahmaputra River system, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes form a distinctive hydro-geomorphic environment.
Etymology
[edit]The first dated mention of the region comes from Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century) and Ptolemy's Geographia (2nd century), which calls the region Kirrhadia, apparently after the Kirata population.[17][18] In the classical period and up to the 12th century, the region east of the Karatoya River, largely congruent to present-day Assam, was called Kamarupa, and alternatively, Pragjyotisha.[19] Though a western portion of Assam as a region continued to be called Kamrup, the Ahom kingdom that emerged in the east, and which came to dominate much of the Brahmaputra Valley, was called Assam (e.g. Mughals used Asham); and the British province too was called Assam. Though the precise etymology of Assam is not clear, the name Assam, first used by the British in the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, is associated with the Ahom people, originally called Shyam (Shan).[20]
History
[edit]Pre-history
[edit]Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlement from the beginning of the Stone Age.[21] The hills at the height of 1,500 to 2,000 feet (460–615 m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making.[22] Ambari site in Guwahati has revealed Shunga-Kushana era artefacts including flight of stairs and a water tank which may date from 1st century BCE and may be 2,000 years old. Experts speculate that another significant find at Ambari is Roman era Roman roulette pottery from the 2nd century BCE. Gupta explains that while Guwahati, formerly known as Pragjyotishpur in ancient times, is mentioned in epics like the Mahabharata and the Puranas, there is a lack of substantial archaeological evidence regarding its ancient history, especially before the 7th century AD.[23][24]
Legend
[edit]According to a late text, Kalika Purana (c. 9th–10th century CE), the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danava of the Danava dynasty, which was removed by Narakasura of Mithila and established the Bhauma dynasty. The last of these rulers, also Narakasura, was slain by Krishna. Naraksura's son Bhagadatta became the king, who (it is mentioned in the Mahabharata) fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurukshetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. At the same time towards the east in central Assam, Asura kingdom was ruled by another line of kings.[25]
Ancient era
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Evidence indicates presence of civilisation in Assam around 2nd century BCE, a rock cut stupa at Sri Surya Pahar has been dated to 200 BCE contemporary with rock cut Karle and Bhaja caves of Maharashtra. The site is located in a hilly terrain where several rock-cut shivalingas, votive stupas and the deities of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain pantheon are scattered.[26] Samudragupta's 4th-century-CE Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa[27] and Davaka (Central Assam)[28] as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya River to near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra Valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of West Bengal.[29] The kingdom was ruled by three dynasties who traced their lineage from a mleccha or Kirata Naraka; the Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), the Mlechchha dynasty (c.655–900 CE) and the Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed descent from Narakasura. In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskaravarman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was extended to c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.[22]
Medieval era
[edit]The Medieval Assam history may have started with the advent of Ahoms in the early part of the 13th century and covers their entire rule of 600 years till 1826. After the Bengal-Kamata War, the Khen dynasty ended, and Alauddin Hussain Shah issued coins in his name to be "Conqueror of Kamarup and Kamata".[30][31] The medieval history of Assam is especially known for its conflict with Muslim powers under Turko-Afghan and Mughals, finally resulting in Assamese victory, however, this military glory was shattered in the early 19th century when it failed to resist the Burmese invasions, which led to its annexation.[32]
Chutia kingdom
[edit]Chutia, a Bodo-Kachari group by origin, held the regions on both the banks of Brahmaputra with its domain in the area eastwards from Vishwanath (north bank) and Buridihing (south bank), in Upper Assam and in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. It was annexed by the Ahoms in the year 1524. The rivalry between the Chutias and Ahoms for the supremacy of eastern Assam led to a series of conflicts between them from the early 16th century.
Kachari kingdom
[edit]The Dimasa, a Bodo-Kachari dynasty that ruled from the 13th century until 1854, controlled territories stretching from the Dikhow River to central and southern Assam, with their capital at Dimapur. By the early 16th century, with the expansion of the Ahom kingdom, the Chutia regions were annexed, and by around 1536, the Kacharis were confined to the areas of Hojai, North Cachar, and parts of Karbi Anglong, later expanding to Cachar. At this point, they became more of an ally to the Ahoms than a rival force.
Ahom kingdom
[edit]Early period
[edit]According to the traditional chronology, the Ahoms, a Tai group, established a polity in Upper Assam in 1228 and subsequently ruled parts of the Brahmaputra Valley for nearly six centuries.[33] Traditional accounts state that Sukaphaa, accompanied by a group of followers, migrated from Mong Mao, a Tai polity in southwestern Yunnan, and entered the Brahmaputra Valley in 1228. In 1253, he is said to have established his capital at Charaideo. This chronology has, however, been questioned by modern scholarship, which argues on the basis of Tai and Chinese sources that the Ahom polity may instead have been founded during the 14th century.[34] At the time of his advent, the area was inhabited by Morans and Borahis. To the north and west was the Chutia kingdom, to the south was the Kachari kingdom and to the south-west were the Baro-Bhuyans. For the first three centuries, Sukapha and his descendants were primarily focused on administering and consolidating the kingdom.[35] During this period, the Ahoms remained largely confined to the southeastern part of Upper Assam[36] and the political formation was not yet a fully developed territorial state.[37][38][39]
Expansion
[edit]
The reign of Suhungmung marked the first massive expansion of the Ahom kingdom. Besides sending punitive expeditions against the Nagas, they fought numerous battles with the Chutias, Kacharis, Baro-Bhuyans, Turko-Afghans, and the Naras. In 1522–24 the Chutia kingdom was annexed, and the capital region was placed under the administration of Sadiya-Khowa-Gohain. After securing the eastern tract, Suhungmung then expanded his kingdom westwards through conquest and extended it till Marangi to the west of the Dhansiri River. When the Kacharis tried to regain the lost territory, they were defeated, and their capital Dimapur was sacked. Over the remaining part of the Kachari kingdom, a new king Detsung, was placed as a tributary, but Detsung proved disloyal and revolted against the Ahoms. He was subsequently executed. A new dependent king was set up on the Kachari throne with the name of Nirbhaynarayan. Since then, the Kachari kings were regarded as 'thapita sanchita', meaning established and maintained by the Ahom rulers.
Suhungmung's reign also witnessed the first Muslim invasions of the kingdom. After a series of battles, the invaders were roundly defeated and were chased up to the Karatoya River. The Sultan of Bengal made peace with the king. The rising Koch king Biswa Singha also offered his submission, and the Ahom general Ton-Kham granted him all the territories that were received as dowry from the Sultan of Bengal on the condition of annual tribute.[40]
The successors of Suhungmung, Suklenmung and Sukhaamphaa, sent many expeditions against the Bhuyans and Nagas, and there were significant wars with the Koch. During the reign of Sukhaamphaa, the Ahoms lost to a Koch army led by Chilarai, and the Ahoms had to accept Koch supremacy and had to give up the tracts north of the Brahmaputra. However, the lost tract was soon recovered with further military expeditions.[41]
Later Period
[edit]- War with Mughals
Soon after the death of Nara Narayan, his kingdom was divided between the sons of Nara Narayan and Chilarai as Koch Hajo and Koch Bihar. In 1609, Laxmi Narayan, king of Cooch Behar, accepted the vassalage of Mughals, and the Koch Hajo king Raghudev, and later his son Parikshit, sought assistance from the Ahoms. In 1612, the Mughals attacked Koch Hajo, and his territory up to Barnadi River was annexed into the Mughal domain. This brought the Mughals into direct contact with the Ahoms. Meanwhile, Parikshit was trying to renew his friendship with the Ahoms, but was captured and died on his way to his kingdom. Later, Balinarayan, a brother of Parikshit who had taken refuge with the Ahoms, was made the king of Darrang in 1615 by the Ahom king Pratap Singha. From 1616 onwards, many battles were fought with the Mughal without any tangible result, starting with the Battle of Samdhara. After the last battle, the treaty was established in 1639, which fixed the Asurar ali on the south bank and the Barnadi on the north bank of the Brahmaputra as the boundary between the two.
Pratap Singha also enacted the Paik system and created several army and civil administration posts, such as the Borbarua and Borphukan. Jayadhwaj Singha took advantage of a war of succession between the sons of Shah Jahan, and occupied the imperial territories up to Dhaka. Aurangzeb, after becoming the emperor, appointed Mir Jumla II, to recover the lost territory. After failed negotiations in November 1661, Mir Jumla proceeded with a huge army and fleet to invade the Ahom kingdom. The Ahoms lost at several places, and then captured the Ahom capital Garhgaon. During the rainy season, Mir Jumla and his army suffered immeasurable hardship due to the climatic conditions of the valley, in addition to the guerrilla fighting against the invaders. After no noticeable gain, negotiation started, and in January 1663, the Treaty of Ghilajharighat was established. According to the treaty, the Ahoms acknowledged Mughal supremacy, ceding the territory west of the Bharali on the north bank and the Kalang on the south bank, along with a huge amount of war indemnity, and handing over the sons of the Gohains as hostages, and two Ahom princesses to the Mughal harem. Soon after the departure of Mir Jumla, Jayadhwaj Singha died, and the new king Chakradhwaj Singha began preparations to overthrow Mughal supremacy and to recover the lost territory. After numerous battles, and finally the Battle of Saraighat, the Mughals were forced to retreat.
The period after 1671 was very unstable due to the rivalry among the nobles, who wanted to establish their political power and influence by placing their own choice of prince on the throne. In 1679, Laluksola Borphukan, in hopes of becoming king with the help of the Mughals, surrendered Guwahati without any battle. But after the accession of Gadadhar Singha, at the final Battle of Itakhuli, the Mughals were badly defeated. The border was then fixed at Manah on the north bank, and the Nagarbera hill on the south bank of the Brahmaputra till its annexation by the East India Company in 1826.[42][43]
- 18th century
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Rudra Singha succeeded Gadadhar Singha, his reign is notable because of his military achievements and his socio-cultural contributions. He had both subjugated the Kachari and Jaintia kingdoms, and had captured their kings and forced to accept Ahom suzerainty and agreed for them to pay annual tribute. Other than that, several expeditions were sent against the Miris, the Daflas, the Naga Mishmis and the Nagas of Namsung, Dayang and the Rengma Nagas during late 17th century and early 18th century. Rudra Singha had made extensive preparations for his invasion of Bengal but remained unfulfilled due to his sudden death in 1714.
After Rudra Singha, the Ahoms achieved no notable military achievements. During this period from Siva Singha to Rajeswar Singha, the kingdom witnessed peace and prosperity and was significant for constructive activities and other development. In the field of religion also, Ekasarana Dharma spread all over the kingdom and started to influence all aspects of people's lives. The religious heads of the Vaisnavite monastery exerted great influence with royal patronage and established numerous Satras, and most of the people became their disciples. So got the Ahom court greatly came under the influence of Sakta Brahman priests and astrologers. The religious policies concluded by Phuleshwari and the persecutions of unfavored Satras embroiled the situation further, along with the pressure of Paik system in the 18th century.[44]
This finally resulted in the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), which greatly weakened the Ahom kingdom, where the country was greatly depopulated and unorganised. The political rivalry between the nobles made a pathway for a devastating set of invasions by the Burmese, weakening it more and finally leading to its annexation.
Colonial era
[edit]
In the later part of the 18th century, religious tensions and atrocities by the nobles led to the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), resulting in tremendous casualties of lives and property. The rebellion was suppressed but the kingdom was severely weakened by the civil war. Political rivalry between Prime Minister Purnananda Burhagohain and Badan Chandra Borphukan, the Ahom Viceroy of Western Assam, led to an invitation to the Burmese by the latter,[45][46][47][48] in turn leading to three successive Burmese invasions of Assam. The reigning monarch Chandrakanta Singha tried to check the Burmese invaders but he was defeated after fierce resistance, which led to the Burmese occupation of Assam.[49][50][51]
A reign of terror was unleashed by the Burmese on the Assamese people,[52][53][54][55] who fled to neighbouring kingdoms and British-ruled Bengal.[56][57] The Burmese reached the East India Company's borders, and the First Anglo-Burmese War ensued in 1824. The war ended under the Treaty of Yandabo[58] in 1826, with the Company taking control of Western Assam and installing Purandar Singha as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted until 1838 and thereafter the British gradually annexed the entire region. Thereafter the court language and medium of instruction in educational institutions of Assam was made Bengali, instead of Assamese. Starting from 1836 until 1873, this imposition of a foreign tongue created greater unemployment among the People of Assam and Assamese literature naturally suffered in its growth.[59][60]
The discovery of Camellia sinensis in 1834 in Assam was followed by testing in 1836–37 in London.[61] The British allowed companies to rent land from 1839 onwards. Thereafter tea plantations proliferated in Eastern Assam,[62] where the soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported Han Chinese labourers from China and hostility from native Assamese resulted in the migration of forced labourers from central and eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local Camellia assamica as the most suitable variety for Assam. By the 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. The industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with the invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during the 1870s.
Despite the commercial success, tea labourers continued to be exploited, working and living under poor conditions. Fearful of greater government interference, the tea growers formed the Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby to retain the status quo. The organisation was successful in this, but even after India's independence, conditions of the labourers have improved very little.[63]
The Assam Postage Circle was established by 1873 under the headship of the Deputy Post Master General.[64]
Initially, Assam was made a part of the Bengal Presidency, then in 1906 it was made a part of Eastern Bengal and Assam province, and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a chief commissioners' province. In 1913, a legislative council and, in 1937, the Assam Legislative Assembly, were formed in Shillong, the erstwhile capital of the region. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas.
The Assam territory was first separated from Bengal in 1874 as the 'North-East Frontier' non-regulation province, also known as the Assam Chief-Commissionership. It was incorporated into the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 after the partition of Bengal (1905–1911) and re-established in 1912 as Assam Province.[65]
At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. Assam Province was one among the major eight provinces of British India.
After a few initially unsuccessful attempts to gain independence for Assam during the 1850s, anti-colonial Assamese joined and actively supported the Indian National Congress against the British from the early 20th century, with Gopinath Bordoloi emerging as the preeminent nationalist leader in the Assam Congress.[citation needed] Bordoloi's major political rival in this time was Sir Saidullah, who was representing the Muslim League, and had the backing of the influential Muslim cleric Maulana Bhasani.[66]
With the partition of India in 1947, Assam became a constituent state of India. The Sylhet District of Assam (excluding the Karimganj subdivision) was given up to East Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh.
Modern history
[edit]
Separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting in the fragmentation of Assam. In 1961, the government of Assam passed legislation making use of the Assamese language compulsory. It was withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar. The government of India, which has the unilateral powers to change the borders of a state, divided Assam into several states within the borders of what was then Assam. In 1963, the Naga Hills district became the 16th state of India under the name of Nagaland. Part of Tuensang was added to Nagaland. In 1970, in response to the demands of the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo people of the Meghalaya Plateau, the districts containing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills were formed into an autonomous state within Assam; in 1972 this became a separate state under the name of Meghalaya. In 1972, Arunachal Pradesh (the North East Frontier Agency) and Mizoram (from the Mizo Hills in the south) were separated from Assam as union territories; both became states in 1986.[67] Since the restructuring of Assam after independence, communal tensions and violence remain.
In the 1980s the Brahmaputra Valley saw a six-year Assam Agitation[68] triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighbouring Bangladesh and to provide constitutional, legislative, administrative and cultural safeguards for the indigenous Assamese majority, which they felt was under threat due to the increase of migration from Bangladesh. The agitation ended after an accord (Assam Accord 1985) between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent.[69]
The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups such as the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA)[68] and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB). In November 1990, the Government of India deployed the Indian army, after which low-intensity military conflicts and political homicides have been continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnically based militant groups have grown. The Panchayati Raj Act has been applied in Assam, after agitation of the communities due to the sluggish rate of development and general apathy of successive state governments towards Indigenous Assamese communities.[citation needed]
Geography
[edit]
A significant geographical aspect of Assam is that it contains three of six physiographic divisions of India – The Northern Himalayas (Eastern Hills), The Northern Plains (Brahmaputra plain) and Deccan Plateau (Karbi Anglong). As the Brahmaputra flows in Assam the climate here is cold and there is rainfall most of the month. Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam, is an antecedent river older than the Himalayas, which has entrenched itself since they started rising. The river with steep gorges and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering Assam, becomes a braided river (at times 10 mi/16 km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 50–60 mi/80–100 km wide, 600 mi/1000 km long).[71] The hills of Karbi Anglong, North Cachar and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system.[71] In the south, the Barak River originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border) flows through the Cachar district with a 25–30 miles (40–50 km) wide valley and enters Bangladesh with the name Surma River.
Urban centres include Guwahati, one of the 100 fastest growing cities in the world.[72] Guwahati is also referred to as the "Gateway to North-East India". Silchar (in the Barak valley) is the second most populous city in Assam and an important centre of business. Other large cities include Dibrugarh, an oil and natural gas industry centre.[73]
Climate
[edit]With the tropical monsoon climate, Assam is temperate (summer max. at 95–100 °F or 35–38 °C and winter min. at 43–46 °F or 6–8 °C) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity.[71][74] The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperatures and affecting foggy nights and mornings in winters, frequent during the afternoons. Spring (March–April) and autumn (September–October) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature. Assam's agriculture usually depends on the south-west monsoon rains.
Flooding
[edit]Every year, rivers like the Brahmaputra and Barak overflow due to heavy rainfall, causing widespread flooding across Assam. The rising water levels submerge nearby areas, washing away houses, livestock, and damaging infrastructure such as bridges, railway tracks, and roads, leading to communication breakdowns in many regions. This natural disaster also results in numerous fatalities throughout the state.[75][76]
Fauna
[edit].jpg)
Assam is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of tropical rainforests,[77] deciduous forests, riverine grasslands,[78] bamboo[79] orchards and numerous wetland[80] ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests.
Assam has wildlife sanctuaries, the most prominent of which are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites[81]-the Kaziranga National Park, on the bank of the Brahmaputra River, and the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, near the border with Bhutan. The Kaziranga is a refuge for the fast-disappearing Indian one-horned rhinoceros. The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered and threatened species including the