
åæžè¬èªãWALTER BAGEHOTãBiographical Studiesã ãWILLIAM PITT
WILLIAM PITT (1861)
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⠡ 察蚳
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Lord Stanhope's Life of Mr. Pitt has both the excellences and the defects which we should expect from him, and neither of them are what we expect in a great historical writer of the pre-sent age. Even simple readers are becoming aware that histori-cal investigation, which used to be a sombre and respectable calling, is now an audacious pursuit. Paradoxes are very bold and very numerous. Many of the recognised ' good people' in history have become bad, and all the very bad people have become rather good. We have palliations of Tiberius, eulogieson Henry VIIL, devotional exercises to Cromwell, and fulsome adulation of Julius Cassar and of the first Napoleon. The philosophy of history is more alarming still. One school sees in it but a gradual development of atheistic belief, another threatens to resolve it all into 'the three simple agencies, starch, fibrin, and albumen.' But in these exploits of audaciousingenuity and specious learning Lord Stanhope has taken nopart. He is not anxious to be original. He travels, if possible,in the worn track of previous historians ; he tells a plain talein an easy plain way ; he shrinks from wonderful novelties ;with the cautious scepticism of true common sense, he isalways glad to find that the conclusions at which he arrivescoincide with those of former inquirers. His style is charac-teristic of his matter. He narrates with a gentle sense and languid accuracy, very different from the stimulating rhetoricand exciting brilliancy of his more renowned contemporaries.
â»Life of the Right Honourable William Pitt. By Earl Stanhope, aiilhorof the IliHirry of England from the Peace of Utrecht.
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Mr. Pitt is an example of one of the modes in which thepopular imagination is, even in historical times, frequentlyand easily misled. Mankind judge of a great statesman prin-cipally by the most marked and memorable passage in hiscareer. By chance we lately had the honour to travel with agentleman who said, that Sir Eobert Peel was the * leader ofthe Whigs ; ' and though historical evidence will always preventcommon opinion from becoming so absurd as this, it is unde-niable that, in the popular fancy of younger men, Sir EobertPeel is the Liberal minister who repealed the Corn-laws andcarried Catholic Emancipation. The world is forgetting thathe was once the favourite leader of the old Tory party â thesteady opponent of Mr, Canning, and the steady adherent ofLord Sidmouth and Lord Eldon. We remember his great re-forms, of which we daily feel the benefit ; we forget that, duringa complete political generation, he was the most plausible sup-porter of ancient prejudices, and the most decent advocate ofinveterate abuses. Mr. Pitt's fate has been very similar, butfar less fortunate. The event in his life most deeply im-planted in the popular memory is his resistance to the FrenchEe volution ; it is this which has made him the object ofaffection to extreme Tories, and of suspicion and distrust toreasonable Liberals. Yet no rash inference was ever more un-founded and more false. It can be proved that, in all the otherparts of Mr. Pitt's life, the natural tendency of his favouriteplan was uniformly Liberal ; that, at the time of the FrenchEevolution itself, he only did what the immense majority of theEnglish people, even of the cultivated English people, deli-berately desired ; that he did it anxiously, with many mis-givings, and in opposition to his natural inclinations ; that itis very dubious whether, in the temper of the French nationand the temper of the English nation, a war between themcould by possibility have been avoided at that juncture ; that,in his administration and under his auspices, the spirit oflegislative improvement which characterises modern times mayalmost be said to begin ; that he was the first English ministerwho discussed political questions with the cultivated thought-fulness and considerate discretion which seem to characteriseus now; that, in political instruction, he was immeasurablysuperior to Fox, and that, in the practical application of justprinciples to ordinary events, he was equally superior to Burke.There are two kinds of statesmen to whom, at differenttimes, representative government gives an opportunity and a career â dictators and administrators. There are certain menwho are called in conjunctm-es of great danger to save theState. When national peril was imminent, all nations have feltit needful to select the best man who could be found â forbetter, for worse ; to put unlimited trust in him ; to allowhim to do whatever he wished, and to leave undone whatever hedid not approve of. The qualities which are necessary for adictator are two â a commanding character and an original in-tellect. All other qualities are secondary. Eegular industry, aconciliatory disposition, a power of logical exposition, and argu-mentative discussion, which are necessary to a parliamentarystatesman in ordinary times, are not essential to the selecteddictator of a particular juncture. If he have force of characterto overawe men into trusting him, and originality of intellectsufficient to enable him to cope with the pressing, terrible, andcritical events with which he is selected to cope, it is enough.Every subordinate shortcoming, every incidental defect, will bepardoned. ' Save us ! ' is the cry of the moment ; and, in theconfident hope of safety, any deficiency will be overlooked, andany frailty pardoned.
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The genius requisite for a great administrator is not soimposing, but it is, perhaps, equally rare, and needs a morepeculiar combination of qualities. Ordinary administrators arevery common : every-day life requires and produces every-daypersons. But a really great administrator thinks not only ofthe day but of the morrow ; does not only what he must butwhat he wants ; is eager to extirpate every abuse, and on thewatch for every improvement ; is on a level with the highestpolitical thought of his time, and persuades his age to be ruledaccording to it â to permit him to embody it in policy and inlaws. Administration in this large sense includes legislation,for it is concerned with the far-seeing regulation of future con-duet, as well as with the limited management of the present.Great dictators are doubtless rare in political history ; but theyare not more so than great administrators, such as we have just defined them. It is not easy to manage any age ; it is not easyto be on a level with the highest thought of any age ; but tomanage that age according to that highest thought is amongthe most arduous tasks of the world. The intellectual characterof a dictator is noble but simple ; that of a great administratorand legislator is also complex.
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The exact description of Mr. Pitt is, that he had in themost complete perfection the faculties of a great administrator,and that he added to it the commanding temperament, thoughnot the creative intellect, of a great dictator. He was tried bylong and prosperous years, which exercised to the utmost hispeculiar faculties, which enabled him to effect brilliant triumphsof policy and of legislation : he was tried likewise by a terriblecrisis, with which he had not the originality entirely to cope,which he did not understand as we understand it now, but inwhich he showed a hardihood of resolution and a consistency ofaction which captivated the English people, and which impressedthe whole world.
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A very slight survey of Mr. Pitt's career is all we have roomfor here ; indeed, it is not easy within the compass of an articleto make any survey, however slight ; but we hope at least toshow that peculiar training, peculiar opportunity, and peculiarability, combined to make him what he was.
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It may seem silly to observe tliat Mr. Pitt was the son ofhis father, and yet there is no doubt that it was a criticalcircumstance in the formation of his character. When he wasborn, as Lord Macaulay has descrilied, his father's name wasthe most celebrated in the whole civilised world ; every postbrought the news of some victory or some great stroke of policy,and his imagination dwelt upon the realities before him. ' Iam glad I am not the eldest son,' he said. ' I should like tospeak in the House of Commons, like papa.' And there areother sayings indicating an early ambition and an early con-sciousness of power. There is nothing extraordinary in this.Most boys are conceited ; most boys have a wonderful belief in their own power. ' At sixteen,' says Mr. Disraeli, ' everyonebelieves he is the most peculiar man who ever lived.' Andthere is certainly no difficulty in imagining Mr. Disraeli think-ing so. The difficulty is, not to entertain this proud belief, butto keep it ; not to have these lofty visions, but to hold them.Manhood comes, and with it come the plain facts of the world.There is no illusion in them ; they have a distinct teaching.' The world,' they say definitely, ' does not believe in you. Youfancy you have a call to a great career, but no one else evenimagines that you fancy it. You do not dare to say it out loud.'Before the fear of ridicule and the touch of reality, the illusionsof youth pass away, and with them goes all intellectual courage.We have no longer the hardihood, we have scarcely the wishto form our own creed, to think our own thoughts, to act uponour own belief; we try to be sensible, and we end in beingordinary ; we fear to be eccentric, and we end in being com-monplace. It is from this fate that the son of a commandingprime minister is at any rate preserved ; the world thinks abouthim ; the world alludes to him. He can speak ' in the grandstyle,' and he will not be laughed at, or not much. When wewonder at the indomitable resolution and the inflexible self-reliance which jNIr. Pitt through life displayed, we may lessenour wonder by remembering that he never endured the bitterignominy of youth ; that his self-confidence was never dis-heartened by being ' an unknown man ; ' that he early receivedfrom fortune the inestimable permission to he himself.
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The education of Mr. Pitt was as favourable to the develop-ment of his peculiar powers as his position. The public educa-tion of England has very great merits, and is well fitted for thecultivation of the average Englishman ; but one at least of thequalities which fit it for training ordinary men unfit it fortraining an extraordinary man. Its greatest value to the massof those who are brought up in it, is its influence in diminishingtheir self-confidence. They are early brought into a little butrough world, which effects on a small scale what the real world will afterwards effect still more thoroughly on a large one. Itteaches boys, who are no better than other boys, that they areno better than other boys ; that the advantages of one arecompensated by the advantages of others ; that the world is amiscellaneous and motley medley, in which it is not easy toconquer, and over which it is impossible to rule. But it isnot desirable that a young man in Pitt's position should learnthis lesson. If you are to train a man to be prime minister atfive and twenty, you must not dishearten his self-confidence,though it be overweening ; you must not tame his energy,though it seem presumptuous. Ordinary men should and mustbe taught to fear the face of the world ; they are to be guidedby its laws and regulated by its manners ; the one exceptionalman, who is in his first youth to rule the world, must be trainednot to fear it, but to despise it.
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The legitimate food of a self-relying nature is early solitude,and the most stimulating soHtude is solitude in the midst ofsociety. Mr. Pitt's education was of this kind entirely. Hewas educated at home during his whole boyhood. He was sentto Cambridge at a most unusually early age. He lived therealmost wholly with Mr. Pretyman, his tutor. ' While Mr. Pittwas undergraduate,' writes that gentleman, ' he never omittedattending chapel morning a,nd evening in the public hall,except when prevented by indisposition. Nor did he pass asingle evening out of the college walls ; indeed, most of histime was spent with me. During his whole residence at theUniversity,' Mr. Pretyman continues, ' I never knew him spendan idle day, nor did he ever fail to attend me at the appointedhour.' He did not make any friends, scarcely any socialacquaintances till he had taken his degree. He passed verymuch of his time, his tutor tells us, in very severe study, andvery much of it, as we may easily believe, in the most absorbingof early pleasures â the monotonous excitement of ambitiousanticipation. On an inferior man, this sort of youth could havehad but one effect â it must have made him a prig. But it had not that effect on Pitt. It contributed to make him a shy,haughty, and inaccessible man. Such he emerged from Cam-bridge, and such he continued through life to be ; but he waspreserved from the characteristic degradation of well-inten-tioned and erudite youth by two great counteracting influences,â a strong sense of humour and a genuine interest in greatsubjects. His sense of fun was, indeed, disguised from thevulgar by a rigid mask of grave dignity ; but in private it washis strongest characteristic. ' Don't tell me,' he js said to haveremarked, ' of a man's being able to talk sense ; everyone cantalk sense : can he talk nonsense ? ' And Mr. Wilberforce, themost cheerful of human beings, who had seen the most amusingsociety of his generation, always declared that Pitt's wit wasthe best which he had ever known. And it was likely to be ;humour gains much by constant suppression, and at no time oflife was Pitt ever wanting in dexterous words. No man whoreally cares for great things, and who sees the laughable sideof little things, ever becomes a ' prig.'
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While at Cambridge likewise Pitt paid, as his tutor tellsus, great attention to what are now, in popular estimation, thecharacteristic studies of the place. His attainments in mathe-matics were probably not much like the elaborate and exactknowledge which the higher wranglers now yearly carry awayfrom the University, but they were considerable for his time,and they comprehended the most instructive part of the subject,the first principles ; a vague hope, too, is expressed that hemay read Newton's ' Prineipia ' ' after some summer circuit,'which, as we may easily suppose, was not realised.
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Though the tutor's information is not very exact, we mayaccept his general testimony that Pitt was a good mathemati-cian, according to the academic standing of that day. There is,indeed, strong corroborative evidence of the fact in Mr. Pitt'sfinancial speeches. It is not easy to draw out the evidencein writing, and it would be very tiresome to read the evidenceif it were drawn out : but a skilful observer of the contrast between educated and uneducated language will find in Pittmany traces of mathematical studies. Kaw argument andcommon-sense correctness come by natvire, but only a prelimi-nary education can give the final edge to accuracy in statement,and the last nicety to polished and penetrating discussion. Inlater life, the facile use of financial rhetoric was as familiar toMr. Pitt as to Mr. Gladstone.
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His classical studies were pursued upon a plan suggestedby his father, which was certainly well adapted for the par-ticular case, though it would not be good for mankind in gene-ral. A sufficient experience proves that no one can be taughtany language thoroughly and accurately except by compositionin it ; and Mr. Pitt had apparently never practised any sortof composition in Greek or Latin, whether verse or prose. But,for the purpose of disciplining a student in his own language,the reverse practice of translating from the classical languagesis the best single expedient which has ever been made use of.And to this Mr. Pitt was trained by his father from early boy-hood. He was taught to read off" the classics into the bestEnglish he could find, never inserting a word with which hewas not satisfied, but waiting till he found one with which hewas satisfied. By constant practice he became so ready thathe never stopped at all ; the right word always presented itselfimmediately. When he was asked in later life, how he hadacquired the mellifluous abundance of appropriate languagewith which he amazed and charmed the House of Commons, itwas to this suggestion of his father that he at once imputed it.
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To the probably unconscious influence of the same in-structor we may ascribe his early interest in parliamentaryconflict. We have before quoted the naive expression of hisboyish desire to be in the House of Commons. There is a stillmore curious story of him in very early youth. It is said, ' Hewas introduced, on the steps of the throne in the House ofLords, to Mr. Fox, who was his senior by ten years, and alreadyin the fulness of his fame. Fox used afterwards to relate that, as the discussion proceeded, Pitt repeatedly turned to him andsaid, " But surely, Mr. Fox, that might be met thus ; " or, " Yes,but he lays himself open to retort." What the particular criti-cisms were, Fox had forgotten ; but he said that he was muchstruck at the time by the precocity of a lad who through thewhole sitting was thinking only how all the speeches on bothsides could be answered.'
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Nor were his political studies coniined to the studious cul-tivation of oratorical language, or to a thorough acquisition ofthe art of argumentative fence : he attended also to the suh-stance of political science. He was the first great Englishstatesman who read, understood, and valued the ' Wealth of Na-tions.' Fox had ' no great opinion of those reasonings ; ' and thedoctrines of free trade, though present, like all great politicalideas, to the overflowing mind of Burke, were, like all his ideas,at the daily mercy of his eager passions and his intense andvivid imagination. Mr. Pitt, as it would seem, while still atcollege, acquired and arranged them with the collected con-sistency which was the characteristic of his mind. So thorougha training, in the superficial accomplishments, the peculiarassociations, and the abstract studies of political life, has notperhaps fallen to the lot of any other English statesman.
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Nor was the political opportunity of Mr. Pitt at all inferiorto his political training. The history of the first twenty yearsof the reign of George III. is a history of his struggles withthe aristocratic proprietors of parliamentary boroughs. Neitherthe extension of the power of the Crown, nor the maintenanceof the political ascendency of the Whig families, was verypopular with the nation at large ; the popular element in theconstitution was for the most part neutral in the conflict; itreserved the greater part of its influence for objects more inte-resting to itself; but between the two parties, between theCrown and the great borough proprietors, the strife was eager,intense, and unremitting.
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As the present writer has elsewhere explained, the situation in which a constitutional king was placed under the old systemof an unreformed Parliament was more than an energetic mancould endure. According to the theory of that government,the patronage of the Crown was to be used to purchase votesin Parliament, and to maintain a parliamentary majority byconstant bargains with borough proprietors.
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"But who is to use the patronage? The theoiy assumes that it isto be used by the minister of the day. According to it, the head ofthe party which is predominant in Parliament is to employ thepatronage of the Crown for the purpose of confirming that predomi-nance. But suppose that the Crown chooses to object to this ; suppose that the Kmg for the time being should say, ' This patronage is mine ; the places in question are places in my service ; the pensions in question are pensions from me. I will myself have at least some share Lii the influence that is acquired by the conferring of those pensions and the disti'ibution of those places.' George III actually did say this. He was a king in one respect among a thousand ; he was willing to do the work of a Secretary of the Treasury ; his letters for very many years are filled with the petty details of patronage ; he directed who should have what, and stipulated who should not have anything.This interference of the King must evidently in theory, and did certainly in fact, destroy the efl&ciency of the alleged expedient. Very much of the patronage of the Crown went, not to the adherents of tlie primeminister, because they were his adherents, but to the King's friends, because they were his friends. Many writers have been very severe on George III. for taking the course which he did take, and have frequently repeated the well-known maxims, which show that what he did was a deviation from the constitution. Very likely it was ; but what is the use of a constitution which takes no account of theordinary motives of human nature? It was inevitable that anambitious king, who had industry enough to act as he did, would soact. Let us consider his position. He was invested with authoritywhich was apparently gi-eat. He was surrounded by noblemen andgentlemen who passed their life in paying him homage, and in pro-fessing perhaps excessive doctrines of loyal obedience to him. Whenthe Duke of Devonshire, or the Duke of Bedford, or the Duke ofNewcastle, approached the royal closet, they implied by words andmanner that he had immeasui-ably more power than they had. Infact, it was expected that he should have immeasurably less. It wasexjoected that, though these noblemen daily acknowledged that he was their superioi", he should constantly act as if he were their inferior.The prime minister was in reality appointed by them, and it was ex-pected that the King should do what the prime minister told him ;that he should assent to measures on which he was not consulted ; that he should make peace when Mr. Grenville said peace was right ; that he should mate war whenever Mr. Grenville said war was right ;that he should allow the offices of his household and the dignities ofhis court to be used as a means foi- the support of cabinets whosemembers he disliked, and whose policy he disapproved of. It isevident that no man who was not imbecile would be content withsuch a position. It is not difficult to bear to be without power, it isnot very difficult to bear to have only the mockery of power ; but itis unbearable to have real power, and to be told that you must con-tent yourself with the mockery of it ; it is unendurable to have inyoui- hands an effectual instrument of substantial influence, and alsoto act day by day as a pageant, without any influence whatever.Human nature has never endured this, and we may be quite sure thatit never will endure it. It is a fundamental error in the ' esoterictheory ' of the Toiy party, that it assumed the King and the primeminister to be always of the same mind, while they often were ofdifferent minds. â»1
â»1 History of the Unreformed Parliament,and it's lesssons.An essay,published in 1868,p28
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By a series of stratagems George III. at last obtained, inthe person of Lord North, a minister who combined a sufficientamount of parliamentary support with an unlimited devotion tothe royal pleasure. He was a minister of great ability, greatparliamentary tact, unbounded good humour, and no firmness.He yielded everything to the intense, eager, j^etty incisivenessof his sovereign. The King was the true minister for all pur-poses of policy and business. Lord North was only the talkingminister of the present French Assemblies, who is bound toexplain -and to defend measures which he did not suggest, andabout which he was not consulted.
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It is difficult to say how long Lord North's governmentmight not have continued, if it had not been for the militarycalamities of the American war. That war had been verypopular at its commencement, and continued popular as long as it was likely to be successful : it became unpopular as soonas it was likely to fail. The merchants began to murmur atthe stoppage of trade. The country gentlemen began to mur-mur at the oppressive burden of war-taxes. The nation beganto reconsider its opinion as to the justice of the quarrel, assoon as it appeared that our military efforts would probably bedisastrous. Lord North shared in these feelings ; he did notbelieve the war would succeed ; no longer hoped it wouldsucceed ; no longer thought that there was any motive for con-tinuing to carry it on, but for several years he did continue tocarry it on. The will of George III. was a very efficient forceon everyone just about him, and his personal ascendency overmany men intellectually far his superiors is a curious exampleof the immense influence of a distinct judgment and inflexibledecision, with fair abilities and indefatigable industry, andplaced in a close contact with great men and great affairs.
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At length, in March, 1782, the calamitous issue of theAmerican war became too evident, and Lord North resigned.Lord Holland gives us a curious history of the mode in which heannounced to the House that he was no longer prime minister.
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I have heard my uncle Fitzpatrick give a very diverting accountof the scene that passed in the House of Commons on the day ofLord North's resignation, which happened to be a remarkably coldday with a fall of snow. A motion of Lord Surrey's, for the dismissalof minister's, stood for that day, and the Whigs were anxious that itshould come on before the resignation of Lord North was officiallyannounced, that his removal from office might be more manifestly and formally the act of the House of Commons. He and LordSurrey rose at the same instant. After much clamour, disorder, andsome insignificant speeches on order, Mr. Fox, with great quicknessand addi'ess, moved, as the most regular method of extricating theHouse from its embarrassment, ' That Lord Surrey be now heard.' ButLord Noi'th, with yet more admirable presence of mind, mixed withpleasantly, rose immediately and said, * I rise to speak to thatmotion ; ' and, as his reason for opposing it, stated his resignation and the dissolution of the Ministry. The House, satisfied, becameimpatient, and after some ineflectual efforts of speakers on both sides to procure a heaiing, an adjournment took place. Snow was falling, and the night tremendous. All the members' carriages were dismissed, and Mrs. Bennet's room at the door was crowded. But Lord North's carriage was waiting. He put into it one or two of his fiiends, whom he had invited to go home with him, and turning to the crowd, chiefly composed of his bitter enemies, in the midst of their triumph, exclaimed, in this hour of defeat and supposed mortification, with admirable good humour and pleasantry, ' I have my carriage. You see, gentlemen, the advantage of being in the secret. Good-night.'
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Such acquiescent honUomie is admirable, no doubt ; buteasy good-nature is no virtue for a man of action, least ofall for a practical politician in critical times. It was LordNorth's ' happy temper ' which first made him the mean slaveof Greorge III., which afterwards induced him to ally himselfwith the most virulent assailants of that monarch, and, at apreceding period, of himself.
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When Lord North resigned, it was natural that the leadersof the Opposition should come at once into predominant power ;but a ministerial crisis in the early part of George III.'s reignwas never permitted to proceed in what is now fixed as theconstitutional etiquette. The King always interfered with it.On this occasion, the only political party who could take officewas that which, under the judicious guidance of Lord Kocking-ham, and supported by the unequalled oratory of Fox andBurke, had consistently opposed the American War. But theleaders of this party were personally disliked by Greorge III.Lord Rockingham he had once before called ' one of the mostinsignificant noblemen in my service.' Mr. Fox, from a curiouscombination of causes, he hated. Accordingly, though it wasnecessary for him to treat with Lord Rockingham and hisfriends, he did not treat with them directly. He employed asan intermediate agent Lord Shelburne, the father of the presentMarquis of Lansdowne, a politician whom it is not difficult todescribe, but whom it is difficult really to understand. Police-men tell us that there is such a character as a ' reputed thief,'who has never been convicted of any particular act of thievery.
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Lord Shelburne was precisely that character in political life ;everyone always said he was dishonest, but no particular act ofdishonesty has ever been brought home to him. It is not forus now to discuss the dubious peculiarities of so singular acharacter. But it will be admitted, that it was a most unfor-tunate one for conducting the delicate personal negotiationsinevitable on the formation of a cabinet, and that it speciallyunfitted the person believed to possess it to be a good go-betweenbetween a King who hated the Opposition and an Oppositionwho distrusted the King. The inevitable result followed : everymember of the incoming party was displeased with the King ;everyone disbelieved the assertions of Lord Shelburne ; every-one distrusted the solidity of a ministry constructed in amanner so anomalous. A ministry, however, was constructed,of which Lord Shelburne and Lord Rockingham were bothmembers ; and both, Mr. Fox said, intended to be primeministers.
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Lord Rockingham must evidently have been a man of veryfine and delicate judgment. He could not speak in the Houseof Lords, and his letters are rather awkwardly expressed ; butthose who compare the history of the Whig party for someyears before his death with the history of that party for someyears after it, and those who compare the career of Burke forthe same two periods, will perceive that both over the turbu-lence of the great party and the turbulence of the great oratorthe same almost invisible discretion exercised a guiding andrestraining control. After Lord Rockingham's death, boththe Whig party and Mr. Burke committed great errors and fellinto lamentable excesses, which were entirely unlike anythingwhich happened while he was yet alive. If he had been per-mitted to exercise a composing influence, it is possible that theministry we have described might have lasted ; but, unfortu-nately, within three months after its formation he fell ill anddied. Mr. Fox, who had just been quarrelling with Lord Shel-burne, refused to serve under him and sent in his resignation ; and his example was followed by Burke, and by most of thefollowers of Lord Eockingham.
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Lord Shelburne, however, still intended to be prime min-ister. The King was in his favour. The Whigs had no greataristocratic leader. The Duke of Portland, who was put for-ward as such, had no powers of speech and but feeble powers ofthought. There was no difference of political opinion whichneed have separated any Whig from Shelburne. He was there-fore justified in hoping that if he persevered, he might rallyround him in no long time the greater portion of the Whig party,notwithstanding the secession of its present leaders. He doubt-less hoped also, by taking advantage of the various influencesof the Crown, to attach to himself very many of the followersof Lord North, who were the old adherents of the Crown. Butthese were anticipations only. For the moment he was morecompletely separated from the parliamentary ability of his agethan any minister has since been. He came into office in op-position to Lord North and one great party ; he remained inoffice in opposition to Fox and Burke, the leaders of the othergreat party. The trained leaders of the old Ministry and thetrained leaders of the old Opposition were both opposed to him.If he decided to remain prime minister, it was necessary forhim to take some bold step. He did so. He made Mr. PittChancellor of the Exchequer and the leader of the House ofCommons, though he was but twenty-three.
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Such singular good fortune has never happened to anyEnglish statesman since parliamentary government in thiscountry has been consolidated into its present form, and it isvery unlikely that anything like it can ever happen again.Perhaps no man of twenty-three could get through the quan-tity of work that is now required to fill the two offices ofFinance Minister and leader of the House of Commons. InPitt's time the Chancellor of the Exchequer (he himself tellsus) needed no private secretary ; he had no business requiringany. The leader of the House of Commons did not even require one-tenth part of the ready available miscellaneous in-formation which he must now have at his command, and mostof which cannot be learned from any books. To fill the officeswhich Mr. Pitt filled at twenty-three, it would in this age benecessary that a man should have a trained faculty of trans-acting business rapidly, which no man of twenty-three canhave ; and that he should have also a varied knowledge ofhalf a hundred subjects, which no college can teach, and whichno book of reference will ever contain. Mr. Pitt, however, metwith no difficulty. Though the finances of the country hadbeen disordered by the American War, and though the ministrywas daily assailed by the dexterous good-humour of Lord Northand the vehement invectives of Fox and Burke, ' the boy,' asthey called him, was successful in his Budget, and successful inhis management of the House of Commons. It soon, however,became evident that Lord Shelburne's ministry could not standlong. There were three parties in the House, and a coalitionof any two was sufficient to outnumber any one. According toa calculation preserved in a letter from Gribbon, everything de-pended on the decision of Mr. Fox. If he returned to the Gro-vernment, it would be strong ; if he allied himself with LordNorth, it must fail. He did ally himself with Lord North, andLord Shelburne resigned.
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The coalition between Fox and Lord North is not defendedeven by Lord John Russell, who defends almost every act inthe political life of his great hero. Indeed, it was not likelythat he would defend it ; for to it we owe the almost unbrokensubjection of the Whigs, and the almost unbroken reign of theTories, for five and twenty years.
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No political alliance in English history has been moreunpopular than this coalition. For once the King and thepeople were on the same side, and that side the right side.During by far the greater part of his reign the wishes ofGeorge III. were either opposed to the wishes of his people,or the wishes of the two, though identical, were pernicious.
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During the first part of his reign his attempts to increase theroyal influence were generally unpopular; during the latterpart, he and his people were both favourable to the AmericanWar and to the French War, with what result history shows.But at the period of which we are speaking, both the prominentprejudices of the King and the deepest feelings of the peoplewere offended by the same event. The Coahtion deeply an-noyed the King. It was hateful to him that his favourite. LordNorth, who had been his confidential minister for years, whowas enriched with the marks of his bounty and good-will,who was the leader of many politicians, always biassed infavour of the Crown, and always anxious to support its in-fluence, if they could, should after all ally himself with Mr.Fox, who had opposed the Crown for years ; who had calledits latent influence ' an infernal spirit ;' who was the leaderof the party opposed to the American War, and therefore, inthe King's view, of the party which had advocated treason andabetted the disruption of the empire ; who, worse than all, wasthe companion and encourager of the Prince of Wales in everyspecies of dissipation ; who introduced him to haunts andcountenanced him in habits which made the very heart of aneconomical and decorous monarch horrified and angry ; who atthat very moment was endeavouring to make ' capital,' as weshould now say, out of the political prospects and present in-fluence of his profligate associate. George III. used to call the' coalition ministry ' his ' son's ministry ; ' and he could notembody his detestation of it in terms more expressive, to thosewho knew their meaning. On the other hand, the people werenot unnaturally offended also. The Coalition brought intovery clear prominence the most characteristic weakness of ourunreformed constitution. Though it professed to be, andreally was, a popular constitution, the people could not beinduced to believe that they had much concern in it. Themembers chosen by popular election were a minority ; those no-minated by aristocratic and indirect influence were a majority.
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Accordingly most men believed, or were prone to believe, thatthe struggles in Parliament were faction-fights for place andpower ; that the interest of the nation had little to do withthem, or nothing ; that they were contests for political power,'and for the rich pecuniary rewards which influential officethen conferred. The CoaHtion seemed to prove that this wasso even to demonstration. If there ever had been a honafideyand not a simulated, struggle in Parliament, it was the strugglebetween Fox and Lord North. They had opposed one anotherfor years ; Fox had heaped on Lord North every term of in-vective, opprobrium, and contempt ; Lord North had said every-thing which a good-natured and passive man could say inreply. They had taken different sides both on the obviousquestion which had been the dividing and critical one of thelast few years, and on the latent question which was the realone underlying the greater part of the controversies of the ageand giving to them most of their importance. Lord North wasthe great parliamentary advocate of the American War ; Foxwas its most celebrated and effective opponent. Lord Northwas the most decent agent, and the most successful co-operator,whom Greorge IIL had yet found in his incessant policy ofmaintaining and augmenting the power of the Cro\vn. Foxwas known to be opposed to that policy with all his mind, soul,and strength ; he was known to have heaped upon that policyevery bitter term of contempt, opprobrium, and execrationwhich the English language contains ; he was known to haveincurred the bitter hatred of George III. by so doing. Withthese facts before them, what could the nation infer when theysaw these two statesmen combine for the evident purpose ofobtaining immediate office ? They coukl only say what theydid. They said at once that the Coalition must be dishonest ifthe previous opposition had been real, and that the coalescingstatesmen were utterly untrustworthy if that opposition hadbeen simulated.
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The government of the Coalition was not, however, destined to be durable. George III. was a dangerous man to drive toextremity. Though without great creative ability, he had dex-terous powers of political management, cultivated by long habitand experience ; he had an eager obstinacy allied to the obsti-nacy of insanity; it was not safe to try him too far. TheCoalition Government, however, tried him as far as it waspossible. They framed an India Bill, giving the patronage ofIndia to commissioners, to be from time to time nominated l)yParliament, to be irremovable by the Crown, the first of whomwere to be nominated by themselves. The King was enragedat a scheme so injurious to his secret influence. He consideredthat it was a scheme for enabling Mr. Fox to buy votes inParliament. Lord Fitzwilliam, his intimate political friend,was to be at the head of the new Board ; and it was expacted,perhaps, intended, that the Board should be an independentinstrument of parliamentary power at the service of the aristo-cratic Whigs, and in daily opposition to the influence of theCrown â to that personal influence which George III. had allhis life been hoarding and acquiring. The people w-ere almostas much enraged at the scheme as the King himself. Theythought that the politicians who had just formed a corruptcoalition to obtain office were now providing a corrupt expe-dient for retaining that office. ' Being dishonest themselves,'it was said, ' they are providing themselves with the means ofpurchasing the votes of others who are dishonest likewise.'The exact value of these accusations we have not space to esti-mate now ; something might certainly be said in extenuation,if it were needful, but at the time the popular feeling waspowerfully excited by them ; they were expressed by Pitt withmarvellous force and marvellous variety, and re-echoed throughthe nation.
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The parliamentary influence of the Coalition Government,which was supported by the greater part of the borough pro-prietors, both Whig and Tory, was, however, sufficient to carrytheir India Bill through the House of Commons by majorities which would now be considered very large. It reached theHouse of Lords, and would have passed that House too, ifGreorge III. had not taken one of the most curious steps inour constitutional history. He wrote on a card: 'His Majestyallowed Earl Temple to say that whoever voted for the IndiaBill was not only not his friend, but would be considered byhim as an enemy ; and if these words were not strong enough,Earl Temple might use whatever words he might deem strongerand more to the purpose.'
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Such was the influence of the Crown, such was especiallythe personal influence which Greorge III. had acquired bysteady industry and incessant attention to the personalities ofpolitics, that the fate of the India Bill in the Lords very soonbecame dubious. ' The bishops wavered ; ' the staunchest fol-lowers of Lord North especially, being high Tories, becameuncertain ; and in the end the Bill was rejected by a majorityof ninety-five over seventy-six.
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Nor did the King's active influence stop here. The CoalitionMinistry did not resign ; although their principal measure hadbeen rejected in the Lords, they kept their places ; they in-duced the House of Commons to resolve that it was a breachof the privilege of Parliament to attempt to influence votes ineither House by announcing ' any opinion or pretended opinionof his Majesty.' The ministry was passive in its place ; butGeorge III. was never deterred by minor difficulties. He senthis commands at midnight to Mr. Fox and Lord North todeliver up the seals of office, and to send them by their under-secretaries, as he must decline to see them in person. By thisparliamentary cowp d^etat he broke up an administration which,though unpopular in the country, was supported by the 'greatowners ' of parliamentary influence and an overwhelming ma-jority in the House of Commons.
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But who was to come in ? That the King could turn outthe old ministry was very clear, for he had done so ; but thathe could form a ministry that could last in such circumstances seemed unlikely ; that he could form any ministry at all wasnot evident. Political expectation was very eager. As soon asthe House met on the day after the midnight dismissal, a newwrit was moved for the borough of Appleby, ' in the room ofthe Eight Honourable William Pitt, who, since his election,has accepted the office of First Lord of the Treasury and Chan-cellor of the Exchequer.' The announcement was receivedwith laughter, for it seemed unlikely that an ambitious boy(such was the speech of the time) should be able to carry onthe government, and to lead the House of Commons in theface of an adverse majority, in direct opposition to the mostexperienced statesmen, the most practised debaters, and themost skilful manoeuvrers of his age.
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Mr. Pitt was only twenty-five, and he had no one to relyon. Mr. Dundas was a useful subordinate and an efficientman of business, but he was not a great statesman or a greatorator, and he was a Scotch adventurer. In the Lords, Mr. Pittwas confident of the support of Lord Temple, who had effectedthe defeat of the India Bill by the use of the King's name ; butLord Temple wanted to be paid. He had great borough con-nections, which gave him permanent claims on every govern-ment ; he had just turned out the old government, which gavehim a peculiar claim upon the favour of the new. He askedfor a dukedom, and was refused. The King thought he hadasked too much, and perhaps believed that it would be mostdangerous at that critical moment to give the highest of hono-rary rewards to the principal agent in an alarming act of royalinfluence. At any rate, the application was declined, and LordTemple resigned. Mr. Pitt was thus left almost alone. Hiscabinet consisted but of seven persons, and he himself wasthe only member of the House of Commons among those seven.
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Everybody expected that Parliament would be immediatelydissolved. As Mr. Pitt was evidently in a minority in the Houseof Commons which then existed, it was confidently believed thathe would at once see whether he would not have a majority is a new House of Commons. He was too wary, however, to doso. In that age, public opinion formed itself slowly and declareditself slowly. The nation, as far as it had an opinion, was infavour of the new administration ; but in many parts of thecountry there was no opinion. Delay was in favour of the sidewhich had the advantage in telling argument ; and so strongwere the objections of reasonable and moderate men to thecoalition between Fox and Lord North â so entirely was theirIndia Bill interpreted by the help of that connection, andregarded in its relation to it â that every day's discussion madeconverts. The members for close boroughs, and for countiesin which individual interest predominated, were, it is true, amajority in the House of Commons, and they adhered for themost part to the Coalition. But the strength so obtained wasalways weak at a trying crisis. The same influences acted onthe borough proprietors which acted upon others, and theynever liked to be opposed to the national will when it wasdistinctly declared. Nor had the extreme partisans of eitherparty ever liked the coalition of the two parties. The warmestWhigs were alienated from Fox, and the strongest Tories werealienated from Lord North. The majority of Fox began towaver, and the minority of Pitt began to augment. Everydivision showed a tendency in the same direction. Pitt main-tained the struggle with dauntless courage, and unboundeddialectical dexterity, against all the orators in the House ofCommons. The event began to be doubtful. In the unre-formed Parliament no more was necessary. A large section ofevery party was attached to it by the hope of patronage ; it hadbeen bought by promises of that patronage. As the presentwriter has elsewhere explained, the strength so obtained wasunstable.
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It especially foiled at the moment at which it was especiallywanted. A majority in Parliament which is united by a sincereopinion, and is combined to carry out that opinion, is in some sensepecure. As long as that opinion is unchanged, it will remain ; it can only be destroyed by weakening the conviction which binds it to-gether. A majority which is obtained by the employment of patron-age is very different ; it is combined mainly by an expectation. SirRobert Walpole, the gi-eat master in the art of dispensing patronage,defined gratitude as an anticipation of future favours ; he meant thatthe majority which maintained his administration was collected, notby recollection, bvit by hope ; they thought not so much of favourswhich were past as of favours which were to come. At a criticalmoment this bond of union was ordinarily weak.'
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As soon as it seemed likely that Mr. Pitt would be victorious,the selfish part of the followers of the Coalition â a very largepartâ began to go over to Mr. Pitt. The last motion of Mr. Foxwas carried by a majority of one.
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Mr. Pitt then saw that his time had come ; he dissolvedParliament, and his triumph was complete. The popular feelingwas overwhelming. It prevailed even in the strongholds of theWhig aristocracy. ' Thus in Norfolk,' says Lord Stanhope, ' thelate member had been Mr. Coke, lord of the vast domains ofHolkham, a gentleman who, according to his own opinion, asstated in his address to the county, had played" a distinguishedpart " in opposing the American war. But notwithstanding hisalleged claims of distinction, and his much more certain claimsof property, Mr. Coke found it necessary to decline the contest.'But of all the contests of this period, the most important inthat point of view was for the county of York. That greatcounty, not yet at election times severed into Hidings, hadbeen under the sway of the Whig houses. Bolton Abbey,Castle Howard, and Wentworth Park had claimed the right todictate at the hustings. It was not till 1780 that the spiritof the county rose. ' Hitherto ' â so in that year spoke SirGeorge Savile â ' I have been elected in Lord Kockingham'sdining-room. Now I am returned by my constituents.' Andin 1784 the spirit of the county rose higher still. In 1784 theindependent freeholders of Yorkshire boldly confronted thegreat houses, and insisted on returning, in conjunction with the heir of Duncombe Park, a banker's son, of few years and of scarcely tried abilities, though destined to a high place inhis country's annals â Mr. Wilberforce. With the help of thecountry gentlemen, they raised the vast sum of 18,662L for theexpense of the election ; and so great was their show of num-bers and of resolution, that the candidates upon the other sidedid not venture to stand a contest. Wilberforce was alsoreturned at the head of the poll by his former constituentsat Hull. ' I can never congratulate you enough on such glo-rious success,' wrote the Prime Minister to his young friend.One hundred and sixty followers of ]Vlr. Fox lost their seats,and were called ' Fox's martyrs.' The majority for Pitt in thenew Parliament was complete, overwhelming, and enthusiastic.
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ãã®å·ã®ç²Ÿç¥ã髿ããã®ã¯1780幎ã®ããšã§ãããããããŸã§ãâãã®å¹ŽããµãŒã»ãžã§ãŒãžã»ãµãŽã£ã«ã¯ããèªããŸããâãç§ã¯ãããã³ã¬ã å¿ã®é£å ã§éžåºãããŠãããä»ãç§ã¯ææš©è ã«ãã£ãŠéžã°ããã®ã ãããããŠ1784幎ã«ã¯ããã®å·ã®ç²Ÿç¥ã¯ããã«é«ãŸããŸããã1784幎ããšãŒã¯ã·ã£ãŒã®ç¬ç«èªå¶èŸ²æ°ãã¡ã¯ã倧èã«ãåå®¶ãã¡ã«ç«ã¡åããããã³ã³ã ã»ããŒã¯ã®çžç¶äººãšãšãã«ãè¥ãèœåãã»ãšãã©è©ŠãããŠããªãã£ããã®ã®ãåŸã«åœã®æŽå²ã«åãæ®ãããšã«ãªãéè¡å®¶ã®æ¯åããŠã£ã«ããŒãã©ãŒã¹æ°ãæç«ããŸããã
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The constitutional aspect of the events of 1784 has beenmuch discussed, and well merits discussion. It is certain thatGeorge III. did much that was, according to the good notionsnow fixedly established, thoroughly unconstitutional ; it is cer-tain that scarcely anyone will, upon any constitutional doctrines,new or old, defend the ' card ' displayed by Lord Temple. But,if we had room to argue the subject, we think it might be shownthat it would have been inexpedient to apply, in the year 1784,the strict constitutional maxims on which we should act in theyear 1861 ; that the beneficial relations, and that the inevitablerelations of the Parliament and the Crown, were different thenfrom what they are now ; that, under such an aristocratic legis-lature as the unreformed Parliament principally was, it wasneedful that the Crown should sometimes intervene, when theopinion of Parliament was opposed to the opinion of the people';that, in times when public opinion was formed but slowly, it wasadvisable that the Crown should do so, not by an instant disso-lution of the House of Commons, as we should now exact, butby a deferred dissolution, which would enable the thinking partof the community to reflect, and give the whole country, farand near, time to form a real judgment.
1784幎ã®åºæ¥äºã®æ²æ³çãªåŽé¢ã¯ããããŸã§çãã«è°è«ãããŠããã確ãã«æ€èšã«å€ããŸãã ãžã§ãŒãž3äžããçŸä»£ã«ãããŠç¢ºç«ãããŠããå¥å šãªæ²æ³æŠå¿µããèŠãã°ã培åºçã«æ²æ³ã«åããè¡çºãå€ãè¡ã£ãã®ã¯ééããããŸããã ãŸãããã³ãã«å¿ãæã¡åºãããã«ãŒããïŒåŒ·ç¡¬ãªææ®µïŒããæ°æ§ãããªãæ²æ³è«ããã£ãŠããŠãæè·ããè ã¯ã»ãšãã©ããªãã§ãããã
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But, at present, we have to deal with the events of 1784, not in their relation to the constitution of England, but intheir relation to the life of Mr. Pitt. They were the completionof his opportunity. But a short time previously the politicalisolation of Lord Shelburne had made him Chancellor of theExchequer at a boyish age ; the isolation of Greorge III. nowmade him prime minister while still very young. The firstgood fortune would have been a marvel in the life of any otherman, but was nothing to the marvel of the second. By astrange course of great incidents, he was in the most command-ing position which an English subject has ever occupied sinceparliamentary government was thoroughly established in thecountry. The victory was so complete, that the mercenaries ofthe enemy had deserted to his standard. The Crown was ne-cessarily on his side, for he alone stood between Greorge III.and the hated Coalition, which he had discarded and insulted ;the people were on his side, from a hatred of the official cor-ruption of which they considered his opponents to be therepresentatives and the embodiments, from a firm belief in histrue integrity, from a proud admiration of his single-handedcourage and audacious self-reliance. He had the power to dowhat he would.
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圌ã«ã¯ãæãããšãå®çŸããã ãã®åããããŸããã
Nor was this all. The opportunity was not only a greatopportunity, but was an opportunity in the hands of a youngman. Half of our greatest statesmen would have been whollyunprepared for it. When Lord Palmerston was in office in thespring of 1857 with a large majority, a shrewd observer, nowno longer among us, said, ' Well, it is a large majority ; butwhat is he to do with it ? ' He did not know himself ; bypaltry errors and frivolous haughtiness he frittered it awayimmediately. An old man of the world has no great objects,no telling enthusiasm, no large proposals, no noble reforms ;his advice is that of the old banker, ' Live, sir, from day to day,and don't trouble yourself ! ' Years of acquiescing in proposalsas to which he has not been consulted, of voting for measureswhich he did not frame, and in the wisdom of which he often did not believe, of arguing for proposals from half of which hedissents â usually de-intellectualise a parliamentary statesmanbefore he comes to half his power. From all this Pitt wasexempt. He came to great power with a fresh mind. Andnot only so ; he came into power with the cultivated thoughtof a new generation. Too many of us scarcely remember howyoung a man he was. He was born in 1759, and might havewell been in the -igour of life in 1830. Lord Sidmouth, hiscontemporary, did not die till after 1840; he was youngerthan his cousin, j\Ir. Thomas Grenville, who long representedin London society the traditions of the past, and who died in1846. He governed men of the generation before him. Aloneamong English statesmen, while yet a youth he was governingmiddle-aged men. He had the power of applying the eagerthought of five and twenty, of making it rule over the pettyknowledge and trained acquiescence of five and fifty. Aloneas yet, and alone perhaps for ever in our parliamentary his-tory, while his own mind was still original, while his ownspirit was still unbroken, he was able to impose an absoluteyoke on acquiescent spirits whom the world had broken forhim.
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7.倧æ¹é©ã®è©Šã¿ãšè¡æ¿å®ãšããŠã®ç¹è³ª
We have expended so much space on a delineation of thepeculiar opportunities which Mr. Pitt enjoyed, that we must bevery concise in showing how he used them. Three subjectsthen needed the attention of a great statesman, though none ofthem were so pressing as to force themselves on the attentionof a little statesman. These were, our economical and financiallegislation, the imperfection of our parliamentary representa-tion, and the unhappy condition of Ireland. Pitt dealt withall three.
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Our economical legislation was partly in an imcared-forstate, and partly in an ill-cared-for state. Our customs lawswere a chaos of confusion. Innumerable Acts of Parliamenthad been passed on temporary occasions and for temporarypurposes ; blunders had been discovered in them ; other Acts were passed to amend those blunders ; those other Acts con-tained other blunders ; new corrective legislation was required,and here too there were errors, omissions, and imperfections.And in so far as our economical legislation was based upon atheory, that theory was a very mistaken one ; it was the theoryof Protection. The first duty of the English Legislature, itwas believed, was to develop English industry and to injureforeign industry. Our manufactures, it was thought, could bemade better by Acts of Parhament ; the manufactures of ourrivals, it was believed, could be made worse. The industry ofthe nation worked in a complicated network of fetters andbonds.
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Mr. Pitt applied himself vigorously to this chaos. Hebrought in a series of resolutions consolidating our customslaws, of which the inevitable complexity may be estimated bytheir number. They amounted to 133, and the number ofActs of Parliament which they restrained or completed wasmuch 'greater. He attempted, and successfully, to apply theprinciples of Free Trade, the principles which he was the firstof English statesmen to learn from Adam Smith, to the actualcommerce of the country, and to the part of our commercewhich afforded the greatest temptations to a philosophic states-man, and presented the greatest accumulation of irritable andstupid prejudice. France and England were near one another,but had no trade with one another ; no such trade at least astwo countries so different in soil, in climate, and in naturalaptitude, ought to have. So far from either nation much wishing to trade with the other, neither wished to depend on theother for anything. The national dignity was supposed tobe compromised by buying from an ancient rival. Mr. Pitt,however, framed a treaty which, if its consequences had notbeen swept away with so much else, both good and evil, inthe European storm of the French Eevolution, would havebeen quoted as the true commencement of free-trade legisla-tion ; would have been referred to as we now refer to the ten-tative reforms of Huskisson, and to the earlier budgets of SirRobert Peel. So little was the subject then understood, evenby those most likely to understand it, that both Fox and Burkeopposed the treaty with virulence and vehemence ; declaringthat France was our natural enemy, and that it was unworthyof anyone who pretended to be a statesman to create a' peddling traffic,' and maintain ' huckstering ' relations withher.
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The financial reputation of Pitt has greatly suffered fromthe absm-d praise which was once lavished on the worst partof it. The dread of national ruin from the augmentation ofthe national debt was a sort, of nightmare in that age ; theevil was apparent, and the counteracting force was not seen.No one perceived that English industry was yearly growingwith an accelerating rapidity ; no one foresaw that in a fewyears it would be aided by a hundred wonderful inventions âby the innumerable results of applied science ; no one com-prehended that the national estate was augmenting far fasterthan the national burden. The popular mind was appre-hensive, and wished to see some remedy applied to whatseemed to be an evident and dangerous evil. Mr. Pitt sym-pathised with the general apprehension and created the well-known ' Sinking Fund.' He proposed to apply annually a cer-tain fixed sum to the payment of the debt, which was in itselfexcellent, but he omitted to provide real money to be so paid.The only source out of which debt can be defrayed, as every-one now understands, is a surplus revenue ; out of an emptyexchequer no claims can ever be liquidated by possibility : anexcess of income over outlay is a prerequisite of a true repay-ment. Mr. Pitt, however, not only did not see this, but per-suaded a whole generation that it was not so. He proposed toborrow the money to pay off the debt, and fancied that hethus diminished it. He had framed a puzzle in compoundinterest, which deceived himself, and everyone who was en-trusted with the national finances, for very many years.
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The exposure of this financial juggle, for though not in-tended to be so, such in fact it was, has reacted very unfavour-ably upon Mr Pitt's deserved fame. It was so long said ' thathe was a great financier because he invented the SinkingFund,' that it came at last to be believed that he could not bea great financier inasmuch as he had invented it. So muchmerit had been claimed for something bad, that no search wasmade for anything good. But an accurate study of these timeswill prove that Pitt was really one of the greatest financiers inour history, that he repaired the great disorders of the Ameri-can war, that he restored a surplus revenue, that he understoodthe true principles of taxation, that he even knew that thebest way to increase a revenue from the consumption of themasses is to lower the rate of duty and develop their consumingpower.
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The subject of parliamentary reform is the one with which,in Mr. Pitt's early days, the public most connected his name,and is also that with which we are now least apt to connect it.We have so long and so often heard him treated as the greatConservative minister, that we can hardly realise to ourselvesthat he was an unsparing and ardent reformer. Yet such isthe indisputable fact. He proposed the abolition of the worstof the rotten boroughs fifty years before Lord Grey accomplishedit. The period was a favourable one for reform. The failureof the American War had left behind it a bitter irritation andan anxious self-reproach. Why had we, with our great wealth,our great valour, our long experience, failed in what seemed atrivial enterprise ? Why had we been put to shame in the faceof Europe ? Why had we been forced to humble ourselves inthe face of Europe ? Why had we been compelled to make anignominious peace ? Why had we, as one of the greatest ofcivilised states, failed to conquer a raw and unknown colony ?The popular answer was, that our arms had been unsuccessfulbecause our Government was corrupt. The practical workingof our unreformed constitution has been tersely described as the barter of patronage for power ; the parliamentary majori-ties of that age were kept by an incessant commerce betweenthe proprietors of seats who sold and the Secretary of theTreasury who bought. In the present day refined argumentsare often brought forward to justify or to palliate the system ofgovernment. But whatever may be the abstract worth of thosearguments, their practical worth is not great. They will neverconvince the mass of men ; they will never satisfy the unso-phisticated instinct of ordinary men; they will not removetheir natural distrust of what they believe to be unpatrioticselfishness ; they will not lessen their conscientious repugnanceto that which they call corruption. After the disasters ofthe American War, this feeling was very strong and very dif-fused. An unpopular tree was judged of by unpopular fruits ;our calamities were evident, and our corruption was con-spicuous. A most distinct association of the two was formedin the popular mind. Of this Mr. Pitt took advantage. Ifthe strong counteracting influence of the French Eevolutionhad not changed the national opinion, he would unquestion-ably have amended our parliamentary representation. Evenafter the P'rench Eevolution he never changed his own opinion ;he considered that the time was not favourable for what wenow call organic changes ; and he judged wisely, for the massof the nation was wildly and frantically Conservative ; buthe did not abandon his early principles : he never became a' Pittite.'
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The state of Ireland was a more pressing difficulty than ourfinancial confusion, our economical errors, or our parliamentarycorruption. It had an independent legislature, which mightat any time take a dangerously different view of national in-terests, of the expediency of a peace, or the expediency of awar, from the English Parliament. That legislature was aProtestant legislature in the midst of a Catholic people ; it wasthe legislature of a small and hated minority in the midst ofan excitable, tumultuous, oppressed people. The mass of the Irish Catholics believed that the mass of the property, whichbelonged in fact to the Protestants, was in strict right theirs ;they believed that they were the true owners of the soil, andthat the Protestants were intruders ; they believed that theyhad a right to govern the country, and that the Protestantswere usurpers; they believed that the Church which the Statesupported was a heretic Church ; that the Church which theState did not support was the true Church â the only trueChurch in Christendom. In every parish the distinction be-tween Protestant and Catholic was periodically ruled by themost critical, of tests â the pecuniary test. The collection ofthe tithe in detail over the country, from the Catholic popula-tion for the Protestant Church, was the source of chronic con-fusion and incessant bloodshed. Mr. Pitt proposed to remedyall these evils in turn, and effectually. He proposed to remedythe most immediate and pressing cause of trouble throughoutthe country by changing â as has since been done â the period-ical extortion of the Irish tithe from the hostile farmer intoan equivalent payment by a rent-charge, which could be easilycollected, and could give rise to no disgraceful scenes. He pro-posed to put the Catholic majority and the Protestant minorityupon a perfect equality so far as civil rights were concerned.He was desirous that Catholics should be eligible to all offices,and be electors for all offices. He was ready likewise todestroy the prevalent religious agitation at its very root, bypaying the ministers of the Church of the poor as well as theministers of the Church of the rich. He proposed at once toremedy the national danger of having two Parliaments, and toremove the incredible corruption of the old Irish Parliament,by uniting the three kingdoms in a single representative sys-tem, of which the Parliament should sit in England. Heframed, in a word, a scheme which would have cured the in-ternal divisions of Ireland, which would have united her effect-ually to the empire without impairing her real liberty.
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Of these great reforms he was only permitted to carry a few into execution. His power, as we have described it, wasgreat when his reign commenced, and very great it continuedto be for very many years ; but the time became unfavourablefor all forward-looking statesmanship â for everything whichcould be called innovation. The French Ee volution and theFrench War destroyed for many years our national taste forpolitical improvement. But, notwithstanding these calamities,Pitt achieved some part of all his cherished schemes save one.
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No opportunity would have enabled Pitt to effect thesegreat reforms, no peculiar situation would have suggestedthem to him, if he had not had certain more than ordinarytendencies and abilities â the tendencies and abilities of a greatadministrator. Contrary to what might at first sight be sup-posed, using the word ' administrator ' in its most enlarged senseâ in the sense in which we used it at the commencement ofthis article â the first qualification of the highest administratoris, that he should think of something which he need not thinkof â of something which is not the pressing difficulty of thehour. For inferior men no rule could be so dangerous. Ambi-tious mediocrity is dangerous mediocrity : ordinary men findwhat they must do amply enough for them to do ; the exactingdifficulty of the hour, which will not be stayed, which must bemet, absorbs their whole time and all their energies. But theideal administrator has time, has mind â for that is the diffi-culty âfor something more : he can do what he must, and hewill do what he wishes. This is Mr. Pitt's peculiarity amongthe great English statesmen of the eighteenth century. As arule, the spirit of Sir Robert Walpole ruled over all thesestatesmen. They respected his favourite maxim, quieta nonmovere; to deal shrewdly and adroitly with what must bedealt with; to leave alone whatever might be left alone;to accumulate every possible resource against the inevitabledifficulties of the present moment, and never to think ordream or treat of what was not inevitable ; â these were then,as always, the justifiable aims of commonplace men. They did ilieiv possible ; they did all that they could with theirstrength and their faculties in their day and generation. Thephilosophy of the time, with its definite problems and its un-aspiring tendencies, encouraged them ; it made them unaliveto the higher possibilities they were forgetting, to the higherduties they were half-consciously, half-unconsciously passingover. It was with reference to this oblivious neglect of thefuture, this short-sighted absorption in the present, that Dr.Arnold called this century the ' misused trial-time of modernEurope.' It is the distinctive characteristic of Pitt that,having a great opportunity, having power such as no par-liamentary statesman has ever had, having in his mind afresh stock of youthful thought such as no similar statesmanhas ever possessed â he applied that power steadily and per-severingly to embody that thought. To persons who thinkbut slightly, this may seem only a very slight merit. The firstremark of many a commonplace man would be, ' If I hadgreat power, I would carry out my own ideas.' A modernSocrates, if there were such a person, would answer, ' But,my good friend, what are your ideas ? ' When explained to anexact and scrutinising questioner, still more when confrontedwith the awful factsâ the inevitable necessities of the realworld â these ' ideas ' would melt away ; after a little whilethe commonplace person, who was at first so proud of them,would cease to believe that he ever entertained them ; he wouldsay, ' Men of business do not indulge in those speculations.'The characteristic merit of Pitt is, that in the midst of harass-ing details, in the midst of obvious cares, in the face of mostkeen, most able, and most stimulated opposition, he appliedhis whole power to the accomplishment of great but practicableschemes.
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The marvel, or at any rate the merit, is greater. Pitt wasby no means an excited visionary. He had by no means oneof those minds upon which great ideas fasten as a fanaticism.There was among his contemporaries a great man, who was in the highest gifts of abstract genius, in the best acquisitionsof political culture, far superior to him. But in the mind ofBurke great ideas were a supernatural burden, a superincum-bent inspiration. He saw a great truth, and he saw nothingelse. At all times, with the intense irritability of genius, inlater years with the extreme one-sidedness of insanity, he wascontent, in season and out of season, with the great visionswhich had been revealed to him, with the great lessons whichhe had to teach, and which he could but very rarely induceanyone to hear. But Pitt's mind was an absolute contrast tothis. He had an extreme discretion, tested at the most tryingconjunctures. In 1784, when he had no power, when therewas a hostile majority in the House of Commons, when he hadno sure majority in the House of Lords, when the supportof the King, which he undeniably had, was an undeniabledifficulty ; â for he did not intend to be a second Lord North ;he did not intend to be a servitor of the Palace ; he would nothave stooped to carry out measures which he disapproved of;he would not have been willing to enunciate measures as towhich he had not been consulted ; â at this very moment withmost of the constitutional powers against him, with the verygreatest greatly against him, with no useful part of it truly forhim â he never made a false step ; he guided the most feebleadministration of modern times so ably and so dexterously thatin a few months it became the strongest. A mind with so de-licate a tact as this is entitled to some merit for adhering todistant principles. It is those who understand the present thatfeel the temptation of the present ; it is those who comprehendthe hour that feel the truly arduous, though upon paper it mayseem the petty, difficulty of thinking beyond the hour. It isno merit in those who cannot have the present to attempt toact for posterity. There is nothing else left to them; theyhave no other occupation open to them. But it is a great meritin those who can have what is plain, apparent, and immediate,to think of the unseen, unasking, impalpable future.
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It is this singular discretion which is Mr. Pitt's peculiarmerit, because he belongs to the class of statesmen who aremost apt to be defective in that discretion. He was an ora-torical statesman; and an oratorical statesman means, ex vitermini, an excitable statesman. His art consists in the powerof giving successfully in a more than ordinary manner the truefeelings and sentiments of ordinary men ; not their superficialnotions, nor their coarser sentiments, for with these any infe-rior man may deal, but their most intimate natme, that whichin their highest moments is most truly themselves. How isthe exercise of this art to be reconciled with terrestrial discre-tion ? Is the preacher to come down from his pedestal ? is hewho can deal worthily with great thoughts to be asked also todeal fittingly with small details ? is it possible that the samemind which can touch the hearts of all men can also be aliveto the petty interests of itself? is the microscopic power tobe added to the telescopic power ? is the capacity for carefulmanagement to be added to the power of creating unboundedenthusiasm ? Yet this is the perpetual difficulty of parliament-ary statesmen. A dry man can do the necessary business ; anexcitable man can give to the popular House of Parliamentthe necessary excitement. Mr. Pitt was able, with surpassingability and surpassing ease, to do both ; scarcely anyone elsehas been so.
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This great parliamentary position he owed to a combinationof parliamentary abilities, of which only one or two can be,within our necessary limits, distinctly specified, but one or twoof which are very prominent.
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First, his singular oratorical power. He was. Lord Macaulaytells us, ' at once the one man who could explain a budget with-out notes, and who could speak that most unmeaningly evasive ofhuman compositions, a Queen's speech, offliand.' He had theeloquence of business both in its expressive and its inexpressiveforms, and he had likewise the eloquence of character ; thatis, he had the singular power, which not half a dozen men in a generation possess, of imparting to a large audience the exactcopy of the feelings, the exact impress of the determination,with which they are themselves possessed. On a matter offigures, ' Pitt said so,' was enough ; on a question of legislativeimprovement, an apathetic Parliament caught some interestfrom his example ; in the deepest moments of national despair,an anxious nation could show some remains of their characteris-tic courage, from his bold audacity, and unwearied, inflexible,and augmenting determination.
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No man could have achieved this without a sanguine tem-perament, and accordingly good observers pronounced Mr. Pittthe most sanguine man they had ever known. In no stage ofnational despondency, in no epoch of national despair, was hiscapacity of hope, one of the important capacities for great menin anxious affairs, ever shaken. At the crisis of his early life,Lord Temple's resignation, which seemed the last possible addi-tion to the coalition of difficulties under which he was labouring,is said to have deprived him of sleep ; but nothing else everdid so after his power attained its maturity, and while his bodyretained its strength.
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Over the House of Commons, too, his anxious love of detailhad an influence which will not surprise those who know howsensitive that critical assembly is to every sort of genuineness,and how keenly watchful it is for every kind of falsity. Thelabour bestowed on his reform of the Customs Acts, on hisIndian measures, on his financial proposals from year to year,is matter of history ; no one can look with an instructed eye atthese measures without instantly being conscious of it. Inaddition to his other great powers, Mr. Pitt added the rare oneof an intense capacity for work, in an age when that capacitywas rarer than it is now, and in a Parliament where the elementof dandies and idlers was far more dominant than it has sincebecome.
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Nor would this enumeration of Pitt's great parKamentaryqualities be complete ; it would want, perhaps, the most strik-ing and obvious characteristic, if we omitted to mention Pitt'swell-managed shyness and his surpassing pride.
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In all descriptions of Pitt's appearance in the House ofCommons, a certain aloofness fills an odd space. He is a ' thingapart,' different somehow from other members. P'ox was theexact opposite. He was a good fellow ; he rolled into the House,fat, good-humoured, and popular. Pitt was spare, dignified,and reserved. When he entered the House, he walked to theplace of the Premier, without looking to the right or to the left,and he sat at the same place. He was ready to discuss impor-tant business with all proper persons, upon all necessary occa-sions ; but he was not ready to discuss business unnecessarilywith anyone, nor did he discuss anything but business with anysave a very few intimate friends, with whom his reserve at oncevanished, and his wit and humour at once expanded, and hisgenuine interest in all really great subjects was at once displayed.In a popular assembly this sort of reserve rightly manipulatedis a power. It is analogous to the manner which the accom-plished author of ' Eothen ' recommends in dealing with Orien-tals : ' it excites terror and inspires respect.' A recent book ofmemoirs illustrates it. During Addington's administration, acertain rather obscure ' Mr. Gr.' was made a privy-councillor,and the question was raised in Pitt's presence as to the modein which he could have obtained that honour. Some one said,' I suppose he was always talking to the Premier, and botheringhim.' Mr. Pitt quietly observed, ' In my time I would muchrather have made him a privy-councillor than have spoken tohim.^ It is easy to conceive the mental exhaustion which thiswell-managed reserve spared him, the number of trivial conver-sations which it economised, the number of imperfect ambitionswhich it quelled before they were uttered. An ordinary mancould not of course make use of it. But Pitt at the earliestperiod imparted to the House of Commons the two most impor-tant convictions for a member in his position : he convincedthem that he would not be the King's creature, and that he desired no pecuniary profit for himself. As he despised royalfavour and despised real money, the House of Commons thoughthe might well despise them.
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We have left ourselves no room to speak of Mr. Pitt'spolicy at the time of the French Eevolution. It wouldrequire an essay of considerable length to do it substantialjustice. But we may observe, that the crisis which that revo-lution presented to an English statesman was one ratherfor a great dictator than for a great administrator. TheEnglish people were at first in general pleased with thecommencement of the French Revolution. ' Anglo-manie,^it seemed, had been prevalent on the Continent ; the Englishconstitution it was hoped would be transplanted ; the funda-mental principles of the English Revolution it was, at anyrate, hoped, would be imitated. The essay of Burke by itsarguments, the progress of events by an evident experience,proved that such would not be the history. What was to comewas uncertain. There was no precedent on the English file ;the English people did not know what they ought to think ;they were ready to submit to anyone who would think for them.The only point upon which their opinion was decided was, thatthe French Revolution was very dangerous ; that it had pro-duced awful results in France ; that it was no model for imita-tion for sober men in a sober country. They were ready toconcede anything to a statesman who allowed this, who acted onthis, who embodied this in appropriate action.
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Mr. Pitt saw little further than the rest of the nation ; whatthe French Revolution was he did not understand ; what forcesit would develop he did not foresee ; what sort of opposition itwould require he did not apprehend. He was, indeed, on onepoint much in advance of his contemporaries. The instinct ofuncultivated persons is always towards an intemperate inter-ference with anything of which they do not approve. A mostworthy police-magistrate in our own time said, that 'he in-tended to put down suicide: The English people, in the very same spirit of uncultured benevolence, wished to ' put down theFrench Eevolution.' They were irritated at its excesses ; theywere alarmed at its example ; they conceived that such impietyshould be punished for the past and prohibited for the future.Mr. Pitt's natural instinct, however, was certainly in an en-tirely opposite direction. He was by inclination and by tem-perament opposed to all war ; he was very humane, and all waris inhuman ; he was a great financier, and all war is opposed towell-regulated finance. He postponed a French war as long ashe could ; he consented to it with reluctance, and continued itfrom necessity.
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Of the great powers which the sudden excitement of demo-cratic revolution would stimulate in a nation seemingly ex-hausted, Mr. Pitt knew no more than those who were aroundhim. Burke said that, as a military power, France was "blotted from the map of Europe "; and though Pitt, with characteristic discretion, did not advance any sentiment whichwould be so extreme, or any phrase which would adhere sofixedly to everyone's memory, it is undeniable that he didnot anticipate the martial power which the new France, as bymagic, displayed ; that he fancied she would be an efietecountry ; that he fancied he was making war with certainscanty vestiges of the ancien regime, instead of contendingagainst the renewed, excited, and intensified energies of aunited people. He did not know that, for temporary purposes,a revolutionary government was the most powerful of all go-vernments ; for it does not care for the future, and has theentire legacy of the past. He forgot that it was possible, thatfrom a brief period of tumultuous disorder, there might issuea military despotism more compact, more disciplined, and moreoverpowering than any which had preceded it, or any whichhas followed it.
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