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Olive
Temporal range: Late Pleistocene to recent, 0.06–0 Ma
O. europaea subsp. europaea cultivated in Brazil
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Embryophytes
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Oleaceae
Genus: Olea
Species:
O. e. subsp. europaea
Binomial name
Olea europaea subsp. europaea

The cultivated olive (botanical name Olea europaea subsp. europaea, "European olive") is a subspecies of subtropical evergreen tree in the family Oleaceae. It is abundant throughout the Mediterranean Basin, with wild subspecies in Africa and western Asia; modern cultivars are traced primarily to the Near East, Aegean Sea, and Strait of Gibraltar. The olive is the type species for its genus, Olea, and lends its name to the Oleaceae plant family. The olive fruit is classed botanically as a drupe, similar in structure and function to the cherry or peach. The term oil was originally synonymous with olive oil.

The olive has deep historical, economic, and cultural significance in the Mediterranean. It was one of the first fruit trees to be domesticated, being first cultivated in the Eastern Mediterranean between 6,000 and 4,000 BC. It gradually spread around the Mediterranean Basin via trade and human migration. Olive cultivation was vital to the growth and prosperity of several Mediterranean civilisations.

The fruit is eaten as table olives; the oil extracted from the fruit is used in food and formerly for lamp fuel; and the wood is used for decorative objects. Through its utility, resilience, and longevity, the olive held symbolic importance in cultures around the Mediterranean. Ancient Greeks regarded the olive tree as sacred and a symbol of peace, prosperity, and wisdom, associations that have persisted. Ancient Romans cultivated olive trees extensively, and set up production facilities across the Mediterranean, especially in North Africa and Spain. The olive is a core ingredient in Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines, particularly in the form of olive oil, and a defining feature of local landscapes, commerce, and folk traditions.

The olive is cultivated throughout the Mediterranean Basin, and in other regions with a suitable climate. Spain, Italy, and Greece lead the world in commercial olive production. There are many cultivars, some used primarily for oil, others for eating. Approximately 80% of all harvested olives are processed into oil, with the rest cured and fermented as table olives.

Etymology

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The word olive derives from Latin ŏlīva 'olive fruit; olive tree',[2] from the archaic Proto-Greek form *ἐλαίϝα (*elaíwa) (Classic Greek ἐλαία elaía 'olive fruit; olive tree').[3][4] The word oil originally meant 'olive oil', from ŏlĕum,[5] ἔλαιον (élaion 'olive oil').[6][7] The word for 'oil' in multiple other languages ultimately derives from the name of this tree and its fruit. The oldest attested forms of the Greek words are Mycenaean 𐀁𐀨𐀷, e-ra-wa, and 𐀁𐀨𐀺, e-ra-wo or 𐀁𐁉𐀺, e-rai-wo, written in the Linear B syllabic script.[8]

Description

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The olive tree, Olea europaea, is an evergreen tree that grows in a Mediterranean climate. Its trunk is typically gnarled and twisted.[9] It grows to some 10 m (35 ft) in height, with grey bark. The leaves are oblong, grey-green above and whitish below.[10][11]

Small, white flowers are borne generally on the previous year's wood, in erect racemes springing from leaf axils. Each flower has four yellowish white petals fused at the bottom and joined to a base of four fused green sepals. The flower buds grow slowly for 4 to 6 weeks until they reach a length of about 2 cm and bloom; blooming lasts 5–6 days in hot weather and 2 weeks in colder areas.[12]

The fruit is a small drupe, 1–2.5 cm (3⁄8–1 in) long when ripe, thinner-fleshed and smaller in wild plants than in orchard cultivars. Olives are harvested in the green to purple stage.[13] O. europaea contains a pyrena called in British English a "stone", and in American English a "pit".[14]

Taxonomy

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The natural ranges of the subspecies of Olea europaea, and the introduced/naturalised range. O. e. cuspidata (S. Africa to China) not shown.[15]

The six natural subspecies of Olea europaea are distributed over a wide range:[15][16]

Olea europaea subsp. laperrinei in the Hoggar Mountains of Algeria
  • O. e. subsp. europaea (the cultivated olive, Mediterranean Basin) is divided into two varieties, O. e. var. europaea, which was formerly named Olea sativa, with the seedlings called "olivasters", and O. e. var. silvestris, which corresponds to the old wildly-growing Mediterranean species O. oleaster, with the seedlings called "oleasters".[17] The subspecies O. e. subsp. sylvestris is characterised by a smaller, shrubby tree that produces smaller fruit and leaves.[18]
  • O. e. subsp. cuspidata (from South Africa throughout East Africa, Arabia, Northwest India to Southwest China)[15]
  • O. e. subsp. cerasiformis (Madeira); also known as Olea maderensis[19]
  • O. e. subsp. guanchica (Canary Islands)[15]
  • O. e. subsp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger)[15]
  • O. e. subsp. maroccana (Morocco)[15]

The subspecies O. e. cerasiformis is tetraploid, and O. e. maroccana is hexaploid.[20] Wild-growing forms of the olive are sometimes treated as the species Olea oleaster, or "oleaster". The trees referred to as "white" and "black" olives in Southeast Asia are not actually olives but species of Canarium.[21]

History

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As one of the oldest cultivated fruit trees on Earth,[22] the history of the olive is deeply intertwined with humans; its ecological success and expansion is largely the result of human activity rather than environmental conditions, with the tree's genetic and geographic trajectory directly reflecting the rise and fall of several civilisations.[23] Owing to this relationship with humans, the olive has been disseminated well beyond its native range, spanning 28.6 million acres across 66 countries.[24] Fossil evidence indicates that the olive tree had its origins 20–40 million years ago in the Oligocene, in what now corresponds to Italy and the eastern Mediterranean Basin.[25] Around 100,000 years ago, olives were used by humans in Africa, on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, for fuel and most probably for consumption.[26] The olive was first cultivated in the Mediterranean between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago.[27][28] Spanish colonists brought the olive to the New World in the 18th century.[29] Olive trees were introduced to Japan in 1908 on Shodo Island in the Seto Inland Sea.[30] The island accounts for over 95% of Japan's olive production.[31][32] Fifty-eight countries across five continents produce olive oil.[33][34][35]

Cultivation

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Map of the distribution of cultivation in the Mediterranean Basin
Areas of cultivation in green[36]
Andalucía, Spain

Olives are cultivated in many regions of the world with Mediterranean climates, such as South Africa, Chile, Peru, Pakistan, Australia, and the western United States (particularly California), as well as in areas with temperate climates such as New Zealand, Uruguay and the Córdoba Province, Argentina.[37][38]

Growth and propagation

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Pruned trees in neat rows at Ostuni, Apulia, Italy
Pruned trees in Ostuni, Apulia, Italy

Olive trees show a marked preference for calcareous soils, flourishing best on limestone slopes and crags, and coastal climate conditions. They grow in any light soil, even on clay if well drained, but in rich soils, they are predisposed to disease and produce poor quality oil, as noted by Pliny the Elder. Olives like hot weather and sunny positions without any shade, while temperatures below −10 °C (14 °F) may injure even a mature tree. They tolerate drought well because of their sturdy and extensive root systems. Olive trees can remain productive for centuries as long as they are pruned correctly and regularly.[39]

Only a handful of olive varieties can be used to cross-pollinate. 'Pendolino' olive trees are partially self-fertile, but pollenisers are needed for a large fruit crop. Other compatible olive tree pollinators include 'Leccino' and 'Maurino'. 'Pendolino' olive trees are used extensively as pollinisers in large olive tree groves.[40]

Olives are propagated by various methods, especially by cuttings and layering; the tree roots easily in favourable soil and throws up suckers from the stump when cut down. Trees can also be grown from seed. However, yields from trees grown from suckers or seeds are poor; they have to be budded or grafted to do well.[41] To facilitate germination, the oily pericarp is softened by slight rotting, or soaked in hot water or in an alkaline solution.[42]

Where extreme cold has damaged or killed the above-ground parts of the tree, the rootstock can survive and produce new shoots which in turn become new trees. In this way, olive trees can regenerate themselves. In Tuscany in 1985, a severe frost destroyed many productive and aged olive trees and ruined farmers' livelihoods; recovery was expected to take four or five years.[43]

Olives grow very slowly, and over many years, the trunk can attain a considerable diameter. A. P. de Candolle recorded one exceeding 10 m (33 ft) in girth. The trees rarely exceed 15 m (50 ft) in height and are generally kept much smaller than that by frequent pruning. Olives are very hardy and are resistant to disease and fire.[44]

Cultivars

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Hundreds of cultivars of the olive tree are known.[45][46] An olive's cultivar has a significant impact on its colour, size, shape, and growth characteristics, as well as the qualities of olive oil.[45] An olive cultivar may produce oil, table olives, or both.[47]

Since many olive cultivars are self-incompatible or nearly so, they are generally planted in pairs with a single primary cultivar and a secondary cultivar selected for its ability to fertilise the primary one. The self-incompatibility system has only two groups, based on a gene with just two alleles, causing the extreme self-sterility seen in the olive.[48]

Breeding efforts have been directed at producing hybrid cultivars with qualities useful to farmers, such as resistance to the fungal disease Verticillium wilt.[49]

Pests, diseases, and weather

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The olive fruit fly is a commercial pest, damaging the fruit.

A serious pest of cultivation is the olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) which lays its eggs in the fruit. The pulp around the puncture rots and becomes bitter, making the olive unfit for eating. The pest can cause total loss of table olive crops and can reduce oil value by 80%.[50]

The caterpillar larva of the olive moth, Prays oleae, forms mines inside the tree's leaves in spring, and pupates there. Second and third generations the same year cause damage to leaves, flowers, and fruits.[51]

A fungus, Spilocaea oleaginea, infects trees for several successive seasons, causing olive peacock spot disease, which does great damage to plantations. It blemishes the fruit, delays ripening, and reduces oil yield.[52]

A bacterium, Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. oleae, induces tumour growth in the shoots.[53] induces tumour growth in the shoots.

Xylella fastidiosa bacteria, which infect citrus fruit and vines, have attacked olive trees in Apulia, southern Italy, causing olive quick decline syndrome.[54][55][56] The main vector is Philaenus spumarius (meadow spittlebug).[57]

At the northern edge of their cultivation zone, for instance in northern Italy, southern France and Switzerland, olive trees are limited by frost.[58] Gales and long-continued rains during the gathering season cause damage. In the colder Mediterranean hinterland, olive cultivation is replaced by other fruit, typically sweet chestnut.[59]

As an invasive species

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Olives as invasive weeds, Adelaide Hills, South Australia
As an invasive weed, Adelaide Hills, South Australia

Since its first domestication, O. europaea has been spreading back to the wild from planted groves. Its original wild populations in southern Europe have been largely swamped by feral plants.[60]

In South Australia, the olive has become a major weed that displaces native vegetation. In South Australia, its seeds are spread by the introduced red fox and by many bird species, including the European starling and the native emu, into woodlands, where they germinate and eventually form a dense canopy that prevents regeneration of native trees.[61] As the climate of South Australia is very dry and bushfire prone, the oil-rich feral olive tree substantially increases the fire hazard of native sclerophyll woodlands.[62]

Harvesting

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Olives are harvested in the autumn and winter. More specifically in the Northern Hemisphere, green olives are picked from the end of September to about the middle of November. In the Southern Hemisphere, green olives are picked from the middle of October to the end of November, and black olives are collected worldwide from the middle of November to the end of January or early February. In southern Europe, harvesting is done for several weeks in winter, but the time varies in each country, and with the season and the cultivar.[63]

Olive harvest in Baruffi (Impruneta, Tuscany, Italy) in 2016

Most olives today are harvested by shaking the boughs or the whole tree. Using olives found lying on the ground can result in poor quality oil, due to damage. Another method involves standing on a ladder and "milking" the olives into a sack tied around the harvester's waist. This method produces high quality oil.[64]

Table olive varieties are more difficult to harvest, as workers must take care not to damage the fruit; baskets that hang around the worker's neck are used. In some places in Italy, Croatia, and Greece, olives are harvested by hand because the terrain is too mountainous for machines. As a result, the fruit is not bruised, which leads to a superior finished product. The method involves sawing off branches, which is healthy for future production.[65]

The amount of oil in the fruit differs greatly by cultivar; the pericarp is usually 60–70% oil. Typical yields are 1.5–2.2 kg (3 lb 5 oz – 4 lb 14 oz) of oil per tree per year.[66]

Longevity

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The Oliveira de Mouchão in Mouriscas, Abrantes, Portugal, has a claimed age of 3,350 years.

Olive trees have been venerated for their resilience and longevity since antiquity; several specimens are reputed to be several thousand years old. However, compared to other woody plants, the exact lifespan is difficult to determine through common methods like dendrochronology (analyzing tree rings) due to the olive tree's irregular growth patterns, which can include missing annual tree rings, hollowed-out interiors, and multiple trunks.[67] For example, a 2013 study revealed wide disparities among different laboratories conducting tree-ring dating of the same specimens.[68] Although age can be inferred from a tree's diameter, this method is imperfect due to a range of other factors that affect size and length, such as soil fertility and climatic conditions.[68] Based on a combination of tree-ring and radiocarbon dating, olive trees have maximum ages between 300 and 500 years,[69] with some research finding that most of the oldest trees live up to 700 years.[70] An olive tree in Mouriscas, Abrantes, Portugal, Oliveira do Mouchão, has a claimed age of 3,350 years.[71][72]

Global production

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Olives are one of the most extensively cultivated fruit crops in the world.[73] As of 2024, 58 countries across five continents maintain commercial olive groves,[74] which occupied roughly 11.6 million hectares (28.6 million acres), a quarter of the world's permanent cultivated area.[75] By comparison, in 2011, about 9.6 million hectares (24 million acres) were planted with olive trees, which was more than twice the amount of land devoted to apples, bananas, or mangoes; only coconut trees and oil palms commanded more space.[76]

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the 10 leading producers are all in the Mediterranean region and responsible for 95% of the world's olives.[77] Spain is the world's leading producer and concentrates the largest land area to olive cultivation, with more than 180 million trees spanning over 2,507,684 hectares, followed by Tunisia (1,746,360 ha) and Italy (1,143,363 ha).[75] In Italy, olive tree cultivation is widespread in the south, accounting for three quarters of its production; it is less abundant in the colder north of Italy, although growth has increased, particularly in the more temperate microclimates of Liguria and the hills around Lake Garda. Approximately 170 million plants are distributed over one million farms.[78]

In terms of olive oil output, Spain is by far the largest producer, making up 25% of the global supply, followed by Italy, Morocco, and Tunisia.[79] The European Union (including Spain, Greece, and Italy) is responsible for nearly 60% of the world's olive oil.[75]

o=100,000 tonnes/year. Location of symbols is diagrammatic.
Main countries of production (as of 2016 per FAOSTAT)[80]
Country/Region Production
(tonnes)		 Cultivated area
(hectares)		 Yield
(tonnes/ha)
World 19,267,000 10,650,000 1.8091
European Union 11,686,528 5,028,637 2.3240
Spain 6,560,000 2,573,000 2.5490
Greece 2,343,000 887,000 2.6414
Italy 2,092,000 1,165,000 1.7950
Turkey 1,730,000 846,000 2.0460
Morocco 1,416,000 1,008,000 1.4044
Syria 899,000 765,000 1.1748
Tunisia 700,000 1,646,000 0.4253
Algeria 697,000 424,000 1.6437
Egypt 694,000 67,000 6.7293
Portugal 617,000 355,000 1.7394

Nutrition

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Olives, green
Marinated green olives
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy609 kJ (146 kcal)
3.84 g
Sugars0.54 g
Dietary fibre3.3 g
15.32 g
Saturated2.029 g
Monounsaturated11.314 g
Polyunsaturated1.307 g
1.03 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
2%
20 μg
2%
231 μg
510 μg
Thiamine (B1)
2%
0.021 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
1%
0.007 mg
Niacin (B3)
1%
0.237 mg
Vitamin B6
2%
0.031 mg
Folate (B9)
1%
3 μg
Choline
3%
14.2 mg
Vitamin E
25%
3.81 mg
Vitamin K
1%
1.4 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
4%
52 mg
Iron
3%
0.49 mg
Magnesium
3%
11 mg
Phosphorus
0%
4 mg
Potassium
1%
42 mg
Sodium
68%
1556 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water75.3 g
Full Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[81] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[82]

A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving of cured green olives provides 609 kilojoules (146 kilocalories) of food energy, are a rich source of vitamin E (25% of the Daily Value, DV), and contain a large amount of sodium (104% DV); other nutrients are insignificant. Green olives are 75% water, 15% fat, 4% carbohydrates and 1% protein (table).

Phytochemicals

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The polyphenol composition of olive fruit varies during fruit ripening and during processing by fermentation when olives are immersed whole in brine or crushed to produce oil.[83] In raw fruit, total polyphenol content, as measured by the Folin method, is 117 mg/100 g in black olives and 161 mg/100 g in green olives, compared to 55 and 21 mg/100 g for extra virgin and virgin olive oil, respectively. Olive fruits contain several types of polyphenol, mainly tyrosols, phenolic acids, flavonols and flavones, and for black olives, anthocyanins. The bitter flavour of olives before curing results mainly from oleuropein and aglycone which total in content, respectively, 72 and 82 mg/100 g in black olives, and 56 and 59 mg/100 g in green olives.[83]

During the crushing, kneading and extraction of olive fruit to obtain olive oil, oleuropein, demethyloleuropein and ligstroside are hydrolyzed by endogenous beta-glucosidases[84] to form aldehydes, dialdehydes, and aldehydic aglycones.[85] Polyphenol content varies with olive cultivar and the manner of presentation; plain olives contain more than those that are stoned or stuffed.[85][86]

Allergenicity

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Olive tree pollen is extremely allergenic, with an OPALS allergy scale rating of 10 out of 10.[87]

Uses

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The olive tree, Olea europaea, has been cultivated for table olives—the tree's fruit, olive oil, its decorative wood, and for ornamental use. About 80% of all harvested olives are used for oil, and the rest as table olives.[45] The olive is one of the "trinity" or "triad" of basic ingredients in Mediterranean cuisine, along with wheat (for bread, pasta, and couscous) and the grape (for wine).[88][89]

Table olives

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Fermentation and curing

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Raw olives are naturally very bitter and astringent; to make them palatable, olives must be cured and fermented, thereby removing substantial amounts of bitter phenolic compounds, especially oleuropein.[90] The curing process may take from a few days with lye, to a few months with brine or salt packing.[91] Most methods of curing involve a major fermentation involving bacteria and yeast that is essential to the final table olive product.[92] Many of the fermentations are carried out by lactic acid bacteria; the lactic acid that they produce makes the olives more acid, preventing the growth of harmful species of bacteria, so the table olives can be stored without refrigeration.[47]

Classes of table olive

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Table olives are classified by the International Olive Council (IOC) into three groups according to the degree of ripeness achieved before harvesting:[93]

  1. Green olives are picked when they have obtained full size, while unripe; they are usually shades of green to yellow and contain the bitter phytochemical oleuropein.[93]
  2. Semi-ripe or turning-colour olives are picked at the beginning of the ripening cycle, when the colour has begun to change from green to multicolour shades of red to brown. Only the skin is coloured, as the flesh of the fruit lacks pigmentation at this stage, unlike that of the ripe fruit.[93]
  3. Black olives or ripe olives are picked at full maturity when fully ripe, displaying colours of purple, brown or black.[93] To leach the oleuropein from olives, commercial producers use lye, which neutralises the bitterness of oleuropein, producing a mild flavour and soft texture characteristic of California black olives sold in cans.[93] Such olives are typically preserved in brine and sterilised under high heat during the canning process.[94]

Olive oil

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An Italian olive oil

Olive oil is a vegetable oil obtained by pressing whole olives. It is used for culinary purposes, and also for medication and as a fuel.[95]

The composition of olive oil varies with the cultivar, elevation, time of harvest and extraction process. It consists mainly of oleic acid (up to 83%), with smaller amounts of other fatty acids including linoleic acid (up to 21%) and palmitic acid (up to 20%). Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) is required to have no more than 0.8% free acidity and fruity flavour characteristics.[96]

Other uses

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Olive wood is hard, straight-grained, and dense, often presenting an attractive pattern. It is suitable for indoor usage, but outdoor use is precluded by its vulnerability to weather and to insect damage.[97]

In modern landscape design, olive trees are frequently used as ornamental features for their distinctively gnarled trunks and evergreen silvery-grey foliage.[98] Smaller cultivars have become increasingly popular as indoor plants due to their resilience and aesthetic appeal.[99]

The pressing of olives to create olive oil results in a liquid byproduct known as amurca or olive mill waste water. Owing to its bitterness and unpleasant aroma, it was historically discarded, though multiple uses for it have been proposed.[100]

The hard, inedible seed or stone of the olive fruit could potentially be used for biofuel, activated carbon (used for water filtration and absorption),[101] furfural production, filler, animal feed, or resin formation.[102] Spain produces about 400,000 tons of olive stones annually, which are mostly used as biomass for residential boilers, olive mills, and some industries.[103]

Olive tree cultivation has been linked to promoting biodiversity, improving soil quality,[104] and mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration.[105][106] As long-lived perennial plants, they absorb carbon dioxide over long time frames, with groves sequestering approximately 2.2 to 4.5 metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per hectare annually.[107][108]

Symbolic and cultural significance

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Greek vase showing men gathering olives. Antimenes Painter (c. 520–510 BC)

The olive tree and its fruit have widespread symbolic and cultural significance. Researchers and historians have identified the olive as one of the defining characteristics of both ancient and contemporary Mediterranean culture, geography, and cuisine.[109][110] Georges Duhamel remarked that the "Mediterranean ends where the olive tree no longer grows".[111] An olive branch is a symbol of peace.[112]

See also

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References

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  1. ↑ Magos Brehm, J.; Draper Munt, D.; Kell, S.P. (2016) [errata version of 2011 assessment]. "Olea europaea". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2011 e.T63005A102150835. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  2. ↑ oliva. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
  3. ↑ "oliva". Oxford Latin Dictionary. Clarendon Press. 1968.
  4. ↑ ἐλαία. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
  5. ↑ oleum. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
  6. ↑ Ernout, Alfred; Meillet, Antoine (2001) [1932]. "oleum". Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue latine. Paris: Klincksieck.
  7. ↑ ἐλαία, ἔλαιον. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
  8. ↑ "The Linear B word e-ra-wa". Retrieved 12 June 2010. "The Linear B word e-ra-wo". Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of ancient languages. Retrieved 15 March 2014."e-ra3-wo". Archived from the original on 21 March 2016. Retrieved 16 March 2014. Raymoure, K. A. "e-ra-wo". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean. Archived from the original on 20 March 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
  9. ↑ Rugini, Eddo; Baldoni, Luciana; Muleo, Rosario; Sebastiani, Luca (2016). The Olive Tree Genome. Springer. p. 14. ISBN 978-3-319-48887-5.
  10. ↑ Polunin, Oleg (1969). "Oleaceae: Olea: Olive". Flowers of Europe. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 312–313.
  11. ↑ Polunin, Oleg; Huxley, Anthony (1972). "Olea—Olive". Flowers of the Mediterranean. London: Chatto and Windus. p. 145.
  12. ↑ Seifi, Esmaeil; Guerin, Jenny; Kaiser, Brent; Sedgley, Margaret (January 2015). "Flowering and fruit set in olive: a review" (PDF). Iranian Journal of Plant Physiology. 5 (2): 1263–1272. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 September 2025. Retrieved 17 September 2025.
  13. ↑ Apostolos Kiritsakis; Fereidoon Shahidi, eds. (2017). Olives and Olive Oil as Functional Foods: Bioactivity, Chemistry and Processing. John Wiley & Sons. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-119-13531-9.
  14. ↑ Featherstone, Susan (2015). A Complete Course in Canning and Related Processes: Volume 3 Processing Procedures for Canned Food Products. Woodhead Publishing. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-85709-687-6.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Green, P.S. (2002). "A revision of Olea L. (Oleaceae)". Kew Bulletin. 57 (1): 91–140. Bibcode:2002KewBu..57...91G. doi:10.2307/4110824. JSTOR 4110824.
  16. ↑ Besnard, Guillaume; Rubio de Casas, Rafael; Christin, Pascal-Antoine; Vargas, Pablo (2009). "Phylogenetics of Olea (Oleaceae) based on plastid and nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences: Tertiary climatic shifts and lineage differentiation times". Annals of Botany. 104 (1): 143–160. doi:10.1093/aob/mcp105. PMC 2706730. PMID 19465750. Retrieved 8 March 2026.
  17. ↑ Marone, Elettra; Fiorino, Piero (January 2012). "Oleiculture in progress". Advances in Horticultural Science. 26 (3–4). doi:10.13128/ahs-22672.
  18. ↑ Barazani, Oz; Keren-Keiserman, Alexandra; Westberg, Erik; Hanin, Arnon; Dag, Nir; et al. (13 January 2016). "Genetic variation of naturally growing olive trees in Israel: from abandoned groves to feral and wild?". BMC Plant Biol. 16 (261): 261. Bibcode:2016BMCPB..16..261B. doi:10.1186/s12870-016-0947-5. PMC 5154132. PMID 27964727.
  19. ↑ Brito, Gina; Loureiro, João; Lopes, Tina; Rodriguez, Eleazar; Santos, Conceição (2008). "Genetic characterisation of olive trees from Madeira Archipelago using flow cytometry and microsatellite markers". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 55 (5): 657. Bibcode:2008GRCEv..55..657B. doi:10.1007/s10722-007-9268-8.
  20. ↑ Besnard, G.; Garcia-Verdugo, C.; Rubio De Casas, R.; Treier, U. A.; Galland, N.; Vargas, P. (2008). "Polyploidy in the Olive Complex (Olea europaea): Evidence from Flow Cytometry and Nuclear Microsatellite Analyses". Annals of Botany. 101 (1): 25–30. doi:10.1093/aob/mcm275. PMC 2701839. PMID 18024415. Retrieved 8 March 2026.
  21. ↑ "Buah Ca-na, Chinese White Olive". National Parks Board. Archived from the original on 15 February 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  22. ↑ Liphschitz, N.; Gophna, R.; Hartman, M.; Biger, G. (1991). "The beginning of olive (Olea europaea) cultivation in the old world: a reassessment". Journal of Archaeological Science. 18 (4): 441–453. Bibcode:1991JArSc..18..441L. doi:10.1016/0305-4403(91)90037-p.
  23. ↑ Palli, Jordan. "The olive landscape: A nearly 4,000-year-old legacy of human-nature interaction in the Central Mediterranean". phys.org. Retrieved 16 April 2025.
  24. ↑ "One-Third of Global Olive Oil Production Comes from Intensive Farming". Olive Oil Times. 10 October 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2025.
  25. ↑ Therios, Ioannis Nikolaos (2009). "History of Olive Growing". Olives: Volume 18 of Crop Production Science in Horticulture. CABI. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-84593-620-4.
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