Extraversion and introversion
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Extraversion and introversion are a central trait dimension in human personality theory. The terms were introduced into psychology by Carl Jung,[1] though both the popular understanding and current psychological usage are not the same as Jung's original concept. Extraversion (also spelled extroversion[2]) is typically associated with sociability, talkativeness, and high energy, while introversion is linked to introspection, reserve, and a preference for solitary activities.[3] Jung defined introversion as an "attitude-type characterised by orientation in life through subjective psychic contents", and extraversion as "an attitude-type characterised by concentration of interest on the external object".[4] In psychology, these are viewed as personality traits that can be measured in degrees, rather than placing people into fixed categories.[5]
While often presented as opposite ends of a single continuum, personality theorists such as Carl Jung have said that most individuals possess elements of both traits, with one being more dominant depending on the situation.[citation needed] Most modern models of personality include these concepts in various forms. Examples include the Big Five model, Jung's analytical psychology, Hans Eysenck's three-factor model, Raymond Cattell's 16 personality factors, and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.
History
[edit]In September 1909, Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung used the term introverted in a lecture at Clark University.[6] A transcript of this lecture was then published with two others in a journal in 1910,[7] the first time the term appeared in print. In the lecture he mentions that love that is "introverted ... is turned inward into the subject and there produces increased imaginative activity".[7]
His 1921 book Psychologische Typen[8] was published as Psychological Types[9] in English in 1923. It described the "introverted" in detail for the first time.[9] In his later paper, "Psychologische Typologie", he gives a more concise definition of the introverted type, writing:
He holds aloof from external happenings, does not join in, has a distinct dislike of society as soon as he finds himself among too many people. In a large gathering he feels lonely and lost. The more crowded it is, the greater becomes his resistance. He is not in the least "with it," and has no love of enthusiastic get-togethers. He is not a good mixer. What he does, he does in his own way, barricading himself against influences from outside. He is apt to appear awkward, often seeming inhibited, and it frequently happens that, by a certain brusqueness of manner, or by his glum unapproachability, or some kind of malapropism, he causes unwitting offence to people ...
For him self-communings are a pleasure. His own world is a safe harbor, a carefully tended and walled-in garden, closed to the public and hidden from prying eyes. His own company is the best. He feels at home in his world, where the only changes are made by himself. His best work is done with his own resources, on his own initiative, and in his own way...
Crowds, majority views, public opinion, popular enthusiasm never convince him of anything, but mere make him creep still deeper into his shell.
His relations with other people become warm only when safety is guaranteed, and when he can lay aside his defensive distrust. All too often he cannot, and consequently the number of friends and acquaintances is very restricted.[9]
In the 1950s, British psychologist Hans Eysenck theorized that the trait of introversion-extraversion could be explained in terms of Clark Hull's drive theory of motivation. He later developed his own arousal theory to explain individual differences in the trait, suggesting that the brains of extraverts were chronically under-aroused, leading them to seek out stimulation from the environment. Introverts, being more cortically aroused, avoid overstimulating environments.[10] The trait of introversion-extraversion would become one of three central traits in Eysenck's PEN theory of personality.[11]
Varieties
[edit]William McDougall discussed Jung's conception, and reached this conclusion: "the introverts are those in whom reflective thought inhibits and postpones action and expression: the extroverts are those in whom the energies liberated upon the stirring of any propensity flow out freely in outward action and expression."[12]
Extraversion
[edit]Extraversion is the state of primarily obtaining gratification from outside oneself.[13] An extraverted person is likely to enjoy time spent with people and find less reward in time spent alone. They tend to be energized when around other people, and they are more prone to boredom when they are by themselves. Research has shown that extraversion is considered to be on a spectrum instead of being fixed. This means that people display differing levels of either extroverted or introverted tendencies in many different situations (McCrae & Costa, 2008).
Introversion
[edit]Introversion is the state of primarily obtaining gratification from one's own mental life.[13] Some popular psychologists have characterized introverts as people whose energy tends to expand through reflection and dwindle during interaction. This is similar to Jung's view, although he focused on mental energy rather than physical energy. Few modern conceptions make this distinction. Introverts often take pleasure in solitary activities such as reading, writing, or meditating. An introvert is likely to enjoy time spent alone and find less reward in time spent with large groups of people. Introverts are easily overwhelmed by too much stimulation from social gatherings and engagement, introversion having even been defined by some in terms of a preference for a quiet, more minimally stimulating external environment.[14] They prefer to concentrate on a single activity at a time and like to observe situations before they participate. This is especially observed in developing children and adolescents.[15] They are more analytical before speaking.[16] These differences are often connected to how much stimulation a person prefers, with some people feeling more comfortable in quieter settings and others enjoying more active, social environments.[17]
Mistaking introversion for shyness is a common error. Introversion is a preference, while shyness stems from distress. Introverts prefer solitary to social activities, but do not necessarily fear social encounters like shy people do.[19] Susan Cain, author of the book Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can't Stop Talking, argues that modern Western culture misjudges the capabilities of introverted people, leading to a waste of talent, energy, and happiness.[20] Cain describes how society is biased against introverts, and that, with people being taught from childhood that to be sociable is to be happy, introversion is now considered "somewhere between a disappointment and pathology".[21] In contrast, Cain says that introversion is not a "second-class" trait but that both introverts and extraverts enrich society, with examples including the introverts Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. Seuss, W. B. Yeats, Steven Spielberg, J. K. Rowling, and Larry Page.[22][21]
Ambiversion
[edit]Most contemporary trait theories measure levels of extraversion-introversion as part of a single, continuous dimension of personality, with some scores near one end, and others near the halfway mark.[23] Ambiversion is falling more or less in the middle.[13][24] The concept of ambiversion was proposed by American psychologist Edmund Smith Conklin in 1923, but did not gain popularity until 2013 after American psychologist Adam Grant published research on it.[25]
Omniversion
[edit]Omniversion is a state where one is either in an extreme state of introversion or an extreme state of extroversion with no in-between depending on a situation or mood.[26][27] However, the term is perceived as a pop-psychology construct, and experts are skeptical of its validity.[28] Richard Robins, a professor at the University of California, Davis, stated that omniversion in his experience "doesn't exist—[I don't believe] that someone would oscillate between these two extremes. It's clearly possible for someone to act very extroverted in one specific situation and very introverted in another specific situation. What I don't think is possible is for someone to be in a hundred different situations and always act either extremely extroverted or extremely introverted in all of them, and never somewhere in the middle."[28]
Otroversion
[edit]Otroversion is claimed to be a variety in the central trait dimension and coined by American psychiatrist Rami Kaminski in 2025. Kaminski described otroverts as "perpetual outsiders", never feeling as if they belong to any group, broadly consistent with initial Carl Jung's point about most individuals having elements of both introvert and extravert traits.[29][30]
Relative prevalence
[edit]
Quiet author Susan Cain reported studies indicating that 33–50% of the American population are introverts.[32] A 6,000-subject MBTI-based survey in 2016 indicated that 60% of attorneys, and specifically 90% of intellectual property attorneys, were introverts.[33]
Measurement
[edit]The extent of extraversion and introversion is most commonly assessed through self-report measures, although peer-reports and third-party observation can also be used. Self-report measures are either lexical[3] or based on statements.[34] The type of measure is determined by an assessment of psychometric properties, and the time and space constraints of the research being undertaken.
Lexical self-reporting
[edit]Lexical measures use individual adjectives that reflect extravert and introvert traits, such as outgoing, talkative, reserved and quiet. Words representing introversion are reverse-coded to create composite measures of extraversion-introversion running on a continuum. Goldberg (1992)[35] developed a 20-word measure as part of his 100-word Big Five markers. Saucier (1994)[36] developed a briefer 8-word measure as part of his 40-word mini-markers. However, the psychometric properties of Saucier's original mini-markers have been found to be suboptimal with samples outside of North America.[3] As a result, a systematically revised measure was developed to have better psychometric properties, the International English Mini-Markers.[3] The International English Mini-Markers has good internal consistency reliabilities, and other validity, for assessing extraversion-introversion and other five-factor personality dimensions, both within and, especially, without American populations. Internal consistency reliability of the extraversion measure for native English-speakers is reported as a Cronbach's alpha (α) of 0.92, that for non-native English-speakers is α of 0.85.
Statement self-reporting
[edit]Statement measures tend to contain more words, and hence consume more research instrument space, than lexical measures. Respondents are asked the extent to which they, for example, "Talk to a lot of different people at parties or often feel uncomfortable around others".[34][failed verification] While some statement-based measures of extraversion-introversion have similarly acceptable psychometric properties in North American populations to lexical measures, their generally emic development makes them less suited to use in other populations.[37] For example, statements asking about talkativeness in parties are hard to answer meaningfully by those who do not attend parties, as Americans are assumed to do. Moreover, the sometimes colloquial North American language of statements makes them less suited for use outside America. For instance, statements like "Keep in the background" and "Know how to captivate people" are sometimes hard for non-native English-speakers to understand, except in a literal sense.
Eysenck's theory
[edit]Hans Eysenck described extraversion-introversion as the degree to which a person is outgoing and interactive with other people. These behavioral differences are presumed to be the result of underlying differences in brain physiology.[38] Eysenck associated cortical inhibition and excitation with the ascending reticular activation system (ARAS), a pathway located in the brainstem.[39] Extraverts seek excitement and social activity in an effort to raise their naturally low arousal level, whereas introverts tend to avoid social situations in an effort to avoid raising their naturally high arousal level too far. Eysenck designated extraversion as one of three major traits in his P-E-N model of personality, which also includes psychoticism and neuroticism.
Eysenck originally suggested that extraversion was a combination of two major tendencies, impulsiveness and sociability. He later added several other more specific traits, namely liveliness, activity level, and excitability. These traits are further linked in his personality hierarchy to even more specific habitual responses, such as partying on the weekend.
Eysenck compared this trait to the four temperaments of ancient medicine, with choleric and sanguine temperaments equating to extraversion, and melancholic and phlegmatic temperaments equating to introversion.[40]
Biological factors
[edit]The relative importance of nature versus environment in determining the level of extraversion is controversial and the focus of many studies. Twin studies have found a genetic component of 39% to 58%. In terms of the environmental component, the shared family environment appears to be far less important than individual environmental factors that are not shared between siblings.